Video coding / decoding with re-oriented transforms and sub-block transform sizes

ABSTRACT

Techniques and tools for video coding/decoding with sub-block transform coding/decoding and re-oriented transforms are described. For example, a video encoder adaptively switches between 8×8, 8×4, and 4×8 DCTs when encoding 8×8 prediction residual blocks; a corresponding video decoder switches between 8×8, 8×4, and 4×8 inverse DCTs during decoding. The video encoder may determine the transform sizes as well as switching levels (e.g., frame, macroblock, or block) in a closed loop evaluation of the different transform sizes and switching levels. When a video encoder or decoder uses spatial extrapolation from pixel values in a causal neighborhood to predict pixel values of a block of pixels, the encoder/decoder can use a re-oriented transform to address non-stationarity of prediction residual values.

RELATED APPLICATION INFORMATION

The present application is a continuation of Ser. No. 11/890,059, filedAug. 3, 2007, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/322,352, filed Dec. 17, 2002, which claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/341,674, entitled “Techniquesand Tools for Video Encoding and Decoding,” filed Dec. 17, 2001, thedisclosure of which is incorporated by reference. The followingconcurrently filed U.S. patent applications relate to the presentapplication: 1) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/322,171, entitled,“Spatial Extrapolation of Pixel Values in Intraframe Video Coding andDecoding,” filed Dec. 17, 2002; 2) U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/322,351, entitled, “Multi-Resolution Motion Estimation andCompensation,” filed Dec. 17, 2002; and 3) U.S. patent application Ser.No. 10/322,383, entitled, “Motion Compensation Loop with Filtering,”filed Dec. 17, 2002.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The technical field of the following disclosure is techniques and toolsfor video encoding and decoding. In described embodiments, a videoencoder incorporates techniques that improve the efficiency ofintraframe or interframe coding, and a decoder incorporates techniquesthat improve the efficiency of intraframe or interframe decoding.

BACKGROUND

Digital video consumes large amounts of storage and transmissioncapacity. A typical raw digital video sequence includes 15 or 30 framesper second. Each frame can include tens or hundreds of thousands ofpixels (also called pels). Each pixel represents a tiny element of thepicture. In raw form, a computer commonly represents a pixel with 24bits. Thus, the number of bits per second, or bitrate, of a typical rawdigital video sequence can be 5 million bits/second or more.

Most computers and computer networks lack the resources to process rawdigital video. For this reason, engineers use compression (also calledcoding or encoding) to reduce the bitrate of digital video. Compressioncan be lossless, in which quality of the video does not suffer butdecreases in bitrate are limited by the complexity of the video. Or,compression can be lossy, in which quality of the video suffers butdecreases in bitrate are more dramatic. Decompression reversescompression.

In general, video compression techniques include intraframe compressionand interframe compression. Intraframe compression techniques compressindividual frames, typically called I-frames, or key frames. Interframecompression techniques compress frames with reference to precedingand/or following frames, and are called typically called predictedframes, P-frames, or B-frames.

Microsoft Corporation's Windows Media Video, Version 7 [“WMV7”] includesa video encoder and a video decoder. The WMV7 encoder uses intraframeand interframe compression, and the WMV7 decoder uses intraframe andinterframe decompression.

A. Intraframe Compression in WMV7

FIG. 1 illustrates block-based intraframe compression (100) of a block(105) of pixels in a key frame in the WMV7 encoder. A block is a set ofpixels, for example, an 8×8 arrangement of pixels. The WMV7 encodersplits a key video frame into 8×8 blocks of pixels and applies an 8×8Discrete Cosine Transform [“DCT”] (110) to individual blocks such as theblock (105). A DCT is a type of frequency transform that converts the8×8 block of pixels (spatial information) into an 8×8 block of DCTcoefficients (115), which are frequency information. The DCT operationitself is lossless or nearly lossless. Compared to the original pixelvalues, however, the DCT coefficients are more efficient for the encoderto compress since most of the significant information is concentrated inlow frequency coefficients (conventionally, the upper left of the block(115)) and many of the high frequency coefficients (conventionally, thelower right of the block (115)) have values of zero or close to zero.

The encoder then quantizes (120) the DCT coefficients, resulting in an8×8 block of quantized DCT coefficients (125). For example, the encoderapplies a uniform, scalar quantization step size to each coefficient,which is analogous to dividing each coefficient by the same value androunding. For example, if a DCT coefficient value is 163 and the stepsize is 10, the quantized DCT coefficient value is 16. Quantization islossy. The reconstructed DCT coefficient value will be 160, not 163.Since low frequency DCT coefficients tend to have higher values,quantization results in loss of precision but not complete loss of theinformation for the coefficients. On the other hand, since highfrequency DCT coefficients tend to have values of zero or close to zero,quantization of the high frequency coefficients typically results incontiguous regions of zero values. In addition, in some cases highfrequency DCT coefficients are quantized more coarsely than lowfrequency DCT coefficients, resulting in greater loss ofprecision/information for the high frequency DCT coefficients.

The encoder then prepares the 8×8 block of quantized DCT coefficients(125) for entropy encoding, which is a form of lossless compression. Theexact type of entropy encoding can vary depending on whether acoefficient is a DC coefficient (lowest frequency), an AC coefficient(other frequencies) in the top row or left column, or another ACcoefficient.

The encoder encodes the DC coefficient (126) as a differential from theDC coefficient (136) of a neighboring 8×8 block, which is a previouslyencoded neighbor (e.g., top or left) of the block being encoded. (FIG. 1shows a neighbor block (135) that is situated to the left of the blockbeing encoded in the frame.) The encoder entropy encodes (140) thedifferential.

The entropy encoder can encode the left column or top row of ACcoefficients as a differential from a corresponding column or row of theneighboring 8×8 block. FIG. 1 shows the left column (127) of ACcoefficients encoded as a differential (147) from the left column (137)of the neighboring (to the left) block (135). The differential codingincreases the chance that the differential coefficients have zerovalues. The remaining AC coefficients are from the block (125) ofquantized DCT coefficients.

The encoder scans (150) the 8×8 block (145) of predicted, quantized ACDCT coefficients into a one-dimensional array (155) and then entropyencodes the scanned AC coefficients using a variation of run lengthcoding (160). The encoder selects an entropy code from one or morerun/level/last tables (165) and outputs the entropy code.

A key frame contributes much more to bitrate than a predicted frame. Inlow or mid-bitrate applications, key frames are often criticalbottlenecks for performance, so efficient compression of key frames iscritical.

FIG. 2 illustrates a disadvantage of intraframe compression such asshown in FIG. 1. In particular, exploitation of redundancy betweenblocks of the key frame is limited to prediction of a subset offrequency coefficients (e.g., the DC coefficient and the left column (ortop row) of AC coefficients) from the left (220) or top (230)neighboring block of a block (210). The DC coefficient represents theaverage of the block, the left column of AC coefficients represents theaverages of the rows of a block, and the top row represents the averagesof the columns. In effect, prediction of DC and AC coefficients as inWMV7 limits extrapolation to the row-wise (or column-wise) averagesignals of the left (or top) neighboring block. For a particular row(221) in the left block (220), the AC coefficients in the left DCTcoefficient column for the left block (220) are used to predict theentire corresponding row (211) of the block (210). The disadvantages ofthis prediction include:

1) Since the prediction is based on averages, the far edge of theneighboring block has the same influence on the predictor as theadjacent edge of the neighboring block, whereas intuitively the far edgeshould have a smaller influence.2) Only the average pixel value across the row (or column) isextrapolated.3) Diagonally oriented edges or lines that propagate from eitherpredicting block (top or left) to the current block are not predictedadequately.4) When the predicting block is to the left, there is no enforcement ofcontinuity between the last row of the top block and the first row ofthe extrapolated block.

B. Interframe Compression in WMV7

Interframe compression in the WMV7 encoder uses block-based motioncompensated prediction coding followed by transform coding of theresidual error. FIGS. 3 and 4 illustrate the block-based interframecompression for a predicted frame in the WMV7 encoder. In particular,FIG. 3 illustrates motion estimation for a predicted frame (310) andFIG. 4 illustrates compression of a prediction residual for amotion-estimated block of a predicted frame.

The WMV7 encoder splits a predicted frame into 8×8 blocks of pixels.Groups of 4 8×8 blocks form macroblocks. For each macroblock, a motionestimation process is performed. The motion estimation approximates themotion of the macroblock of pixels relative to a reference frame, forexample, a previously coded, preceding frame. In FIG. 3, the WMV7encoder computes a motion vector for a macroblock (315) in the predictedframe (310). To compute the motion vector, the encoder searches in asearch area (335) of a reference frame (330). Within the search area(335), the encoder compares the macroblock (315) from the predictedframe (310) to various candidate macroblocks in order to find acandidate macroblock that is a good match. The encoder can checkcandidate macroblocks every pixel or every ½ pixel in the search area(335), depending on the desired motion estimation resolution for theencoder. Other video encoders check at other increments, for example,every ¼ pixel. For a candidate macroblock, the encoder checks thedifference between the macroblock (315) of the predicted frame (310) andthe candidate macroblock and the cost of encoding the motion vector forthat macroblock. After the encoder finds a good matching macroblock, theblock matching process ends. The encoder outputs the motion vector(entropy coded) for the matching macroblock so the decoder can find thematching macroblock during decoding. When decoding the predicted frame(310), a decoder uses the motion vector to compute a predictionmacroblock for the macroblock (315) using information from the referenceframe (330). The prediction for the macroblock (315) is rarely perfect,so the encoder usually encodes 8×8 blocks of pixel differences (alsocalled the error or residual blocks) between the prediction macroblockand the macroblock (315) itself.

Motion estimation and compensation are effective compression techniques,but various previous motion estimation/compensation techniques (as inWMV7 and elsewhere) have several disadvantages, including:

1) The resolution of the motion estimation (i.e., pixel, ½ pixel, ¼pixel increments) does not adapt to the video source. For example, fordifferent qualities of video source (clean vs. noisy), the video encoderuses the same resolution of motion estimation, which can hurtcompression efficiency.2) For ¼ pixel motion estimation, the search strategy fails toadequately exploit previously completed computations to speed upsearching.3) For ¼ pixel motion estimation, the search range is too large andinefficient. In particular, the horizontal resolution is the same as thevertical resolution in the search range, which does not match the motioncharacteristics of many video signals.4) For ¼ pixel motion estimation, the representation of motion vectorsis inefficient to the extent bit allocation for horizontal movement isthe same as bit allocation for vertical resolution.

FIG. 4 illustrates the computation and encoding of an error block (435)for a motion-estimated block in the WMV7 encoder. The error block (435)is the difference between the predicted block (415) and the originalcurrent block (425). The encoder applies a DCT (440) to error block(435), resulting in 8×8 block (445) of coefficients. Even more than wasthe case with DCT coefficients for pixel values, the significantinformation for the error block (435) is concentrated in low frequencycoefficients (conventionally, the upper left of the block (445)) andmany of the high frequency coefficients have values of zero or close tozero (conventionally, the lower right of the block (445)).

The encoder then quantizes (450) the DCT coefficients, resulting in an8×8 block of quantized DCT coefficients (455). The quantization stepsize is adjustable. Again, since low frequency DCT coefficients tend tohave higher values, quantization results in loss of precision, but notcomplete loss of the information for the coefficients. On the otherhand, since high frequency DCT coefficients tend to have values of zeroor close to zero, quantization of the high frequency coefficientsresults in contiguous regions of zero values. In addition, in some caseshigh frequency DCT coefficients are quantized more coarsely than lowfrequency DCT coefficients, resulting in greater loss ofprecision/information for the high frequency DCT coefficients.

The encoder then prepares the 8×8 block (455) of quantized DCTcoefficients for entropy encoding. The encoder scans (460) the 8×8 block(455) into a one dimensional array (465) with 64 elements, such thatcoefficients are generally ordered from lowest frequency to highestfrequency, which typical creates long runs of zero values.

The encoder entropy encodes the scanned coefficients using a variationof run length coding (470). The encoder selects an entropy code from oneor more run/level/last tables (475) and outputs the entropy code.

FIG. 5 shows the decoding process (500) for an inter-coded block. Due tothe quantization of the DCT coefficients, the reconstructed block (575)is not identical to the corresponding original block. The compression islossy.

In summary of FIG. 5, a decoder decodes (510, 520) entropy-codedinformation representing a prediction residual using variable lengthdecoding and one or more run/level/last tables (515). The decoderinverse scans (530) a one-dimensional array (525) storing theentropy-decoded information into a two-dimensional block (535). Thedecoder inverse quantizes and inverse discrete cosine transforms(together, 540) the data, resulting in a reconstructed error block(545). In a separate path, the decoder computes a predicted block (565)using motion vector information (555) for displacement from a referenceframe. The decoder combines (570) the predicted block (555) with thereconstructed error block (545) to form the reconstructed block (575).

The amount of change between the original and reconstructed frame istermed the distortion and the number of bits required to code the frameis termed the rate. The amount of distortion is roughly inverselyproportional to the rate. In other words, coding a frame with fewer bits(greater compression) will result in greater distortion and vice versa.One of the goals of a video compression scheme is to try to improve therate-distortion—in other words to try to achieve the same distortionusing fewer bits (or the same bits and lower distortion).

Compression of prediction residuals as in WMV7 can dramatically reducebitrate while slightly or moderately affecting quality, but thecompression technique is less than optimal in some circumstances. Thesize of the frequency transform is the size of the prediction residualblock (e.g., an 8×8 DCT for an 8×8 prediction residual). In somecircumstances, this fails to exploit localization of error within theprediction residual block.

C. Post-Processing with a Deblocking Filter in WMV7

For block-based video compression and decompression, quantization andother lossy processing stages introduce distortion that commonly showsup as blocky artifacts—perceptible discontinuities between blocks.

To reduce the perceptibility of blocky artifacts, the WMV7 decoder canprocess reconstructed frames with a deblocking filter. The deblockingfilter smoothes the boundaries between blocks.

While the deblocking filter in WMV7 improves perceived video quality, ithas several disadvantages. For example, the smoothing occurs only onreconstructed output in the decoder. Therefore, prediction processessuch as motion estimation cannot take advantage of the smoothing.Moreover, the smoothing by the post-processing filter can be tooextreme.

D. Standards for Video Compression and Decompression

Aside from WMV7, several international standards relate to videocompression and decompression. These standards include the MotionPicture Experts Group [“MPEG”] 1, 2, and 4 standards and the H.261,H.262, and H.263 standards from the International TelecommunicationUnion [“ITU”]. Like WMV7, these standards use a combination ofintraframe and interframe compression, although the standards typicallydiffer from WMV7 in the details of the compression techniques used. Foradditional detail about the standards, see the standards' specificationsthemselves.

Given the critical importance of video compression and decompression todigital video, it is not surprising that video compression anddecompression are richly developed fields. Whatever the benefits ofprevious video compression and decompression techniques, however, theydo not have the advantages of the following techniques and tools.

SUMMARY

In summary, the detailed description is directed to various techniquesand tools for video encoding and decoding. The various techniques andtools can be used in combination or independently.

For a first group of techniques and tools described herein, the detaileddescription is directed to various techniques and tools for spatialextrapolation of pixel values in intraframe video encoding and decoding.Spatial extrapolation of pixel values in intraframe video encoding anddecoding addresses several of the disadvantages of intraframecompression according to the prior art, improving the efficiency of theintraframe encoding and decoding. The various techniques and tools canbe used in combination or independently.

According to a first set of techniques and tools in the first group, avideo encoder encodes a block of pixels in a frame using spatialextrapolation from pixels in one or more neighboring blocks in theframe, which improves the efficiency of intraframe coding. The videoencoder selects the orientation of the extrapolation from any ofmultiple available directions. For example, for a current block in aframe, the video encoder extrapolates from sets of values within blocksto the left, top-left, and/or top according to one of thirteenextrapolation patterns, which include horizontal, vertical, and diagonalorientations. A video decoder decodes the block of pixels byextrapolating from the pixels in neighboring blocks in the frameaccording the extrapolation mode of the extrapolation used in theencoder.

According to a second set of techniques and tools in the first group, avideo encoder predicts the extrapolation mode of a current block fromthe known extrapolation modes of neighboring blocks to improve codingefficiency. Prediction of extrapolation orientation can speed upselection of the extrapolation mode and/or reduce the average number ofbits spent encoding the extrapolation mode. For example, a video encoderpredicts the extrapolation mode of a current block based upongeneralizations of the extrapolation modes of the top and left blocks.Starting from the predicted orientation, the encoder checks possibleextrapolation orientations in a ranked order associated with thepredicted extrapolation mode. The encoder finds a satisfactoryorientation faster than with a full search through all availableorientations. Moreover, the encoder uses short variable length codes forearly indices in the ranked order and long variable length codes forlater indices in the ranked order to reduce the average bits spentencoding the indices. Or, the encoder spends no bits encoding anextrapolation mode if the current block uses a predicted extrapolationmode or an orientation that the decoder will otherwise deduce fromcontextual information in the neighboring blocks in decoding. A videodecoder predicts the extrapolation mode of a current block from theknown orientations of neighboring blocks when reconstructing the currentblock, which improves decoding efficiency. For example, the decoderdecodes a variable length code for the index in a ranked orderassociated with the predicted extrapolation mode of the current blockand determines the actual extrapolation mode. Or, the decoder determinesextrapolation orientation for the current block based upon contextualinformation in the neighboring blocks, without a variable length codefor the mode of the current block.

According to a third set of techniques and tools in the first group, avideo encoder uses a re-oriented frequency transform to addressnon-stationarity in the prediction residual of a spatially extrapolatedcurrent block of pixels. In general, spatial extrapolation for a currentblock yields more accurate values close to neighboring block(s) fromwhich values are extrapolated into the current block. As a result, theprediction residual is more significant (e.g., higher variance) furtherfrom the neighboring block(s). The video encoder addresses thisnon-stationarity with the re-oriented frequency transform. For example,for a block of DCT coefficients, the video encoder lifts one of more ACcoefficients as a function of the DC coefficient to compensate for thenon-stationarity, which increases energy compaction in the predictionresidual. A video decoder also addresses the non-stationarity in theprediction residual. For example, the decoder applies a re-orientedinverse DCT and compensates for the non-orthogonality by inverse liftingselected AC coefficients. In various circumstances, the video encodercan disable the re-oriented frequency transform (using the ordinaryfrequency transform instead), and the decoder can do the same for theinverse transform, based upon contextual information.

According to a fourth set of techniques and tools in the first group,depending on the extrapolation orientation for a current block, a videoencoder selects from among plural available scan patterns for convertingthe frequency coefficients for a prediction residual into aone-dimensional array for entropy encoding, which improves entropyencoding efficiency. For example, a video encoder selects a scan patternfor a generalization of the extrapolation orientation, and the scanpattern decreases entropy in the one-dimensional array for subsequentrun-level encoding. Depending on the extrapolation orientation for acurrent block, a video decoder selects from among plural available scanpatterns for converting a one-dimensional array of values into frequencycoefficients of a prediction residual.

According to a fifth set of techniques and tools in the first group,depending on contextual information in neighboring blocks, a videoencoder selects or switches an entropy encoding table from among pluralavailable entropy encoding tables for a spatially extrapolated currentblock. For example, based upon the minimum number of non-zero valuesamong neighboring blocks of a current block, the encoder selects amongavailable entropy encoding tables for encoding a DC frequencycoefficient, and the encoder switches between available entropy encodingtables during encoding of AC frequency coefficients. Depending oncontextual information in neighboring blocks, a video decoder selects orswitches an entropy decoding table from among plural entropy decodingtables, for example, based upon the minimum number of non-zero valuesamong neighboring blocks of a current block.

According to a sixth set of techniques and tools in the first group, avideo encoder processes reconstructed blocks within a spatialextrapolation loop to reduce block boundaries, which improves thequality of spatial extrapolation for subsequent blocks in the frame. Forexample, a video encoder processes one or more rows or columns of areconstructed neighboring block to reduce discontinuities between thereconstructed current block and reconstructed neighboring blocks. Avideo decoder also processes reconstructed blocks within a spatialextrapolation loop to reduce block boundaries.

For a second group of techniques and tools describes herein, thedetailed description is directed to various techniques and tools formotion estimation and compensation. These techniques and tools addressseveral of the disadvantages of motion estimation and compensationaccording to the prior art. The various techniques and tools can be usedin combination or independently.

According to a first set of techniques and tools in the second group, avideo encoder adaptively switches between multiple different motionresolutions, which allows the encoder to select a suitable resolutionfor a particular video source or coding circumstances. For example, theencoder adaptively switches between pixel, half-pixel, and quarter-pixelresolutions. The encoder can switch based upon a closed-loop decisioninvolving actual coding with the different options, or based upon anopen-loop estimation. The encoder switches resolutions on aframe-by-frame basis or other basis.

According to a second set of techniques and tools in the second group, avideo encoder uses previously computed results from a first resolutionmotion estimation to speed up another resolution motion estimation. Forexample, in some circumstances, the encoder searches for a quarter-pixelmotion vector around an integer-pixel motion vector that was also usedin half-pixel motion estimation. Or, the encoder uses previouslycomputed half-pixel location values in computation of quarter-pixellocation values.

According to a third set of techniques and tools in the second group, avideo encoder uses a search range with different directionalresolutions. This allows the encoder and decoder to place greateremphasis on directions likely to have more motion, and to eliminate thecalculation of numerous sub-pixel values in the search range. Forexample, the encoder uses a search range with quarter-pixel incrementsand resolution horizontally, and half-pixel increments and resolutionvertically. The search range is effectively quarter the size of a fullquarter-by-quarter-pixel search range, and the encoder eliminatescalculation of many of the quarter-pixel location points.

According to a fourth set of techniques and tools in the second group, avideo encoder uses a motion vector representation with different bitallocation for horizontal and vertical motion. This allows the encoderto reduce bitrate by eliminating resolution that is less essential toquality. For example, the encoder represents a quarter-pixel motionvector by adding 1 bit to a half-pixel motion vector code to indicate acorresponding quarter-pixel location.

For a third group of techniques and tools described herein, the detaileddescription is directed to transform coding and inverse transform codingof blocks of prediction residuals with sub-block transforms. Withsub-block transforms, the encoder can react to localization of errorwithin prediction residual blocks. The various techniques and tools canbe used in combination or independently.

According to a first set of techniques and tools in the third group, avideo encoder adaptively sets transform sizes for coding predictionresiduals, switching between multiple available block and sub-blocktransform sizes. For example, for a 8×8 prediction residual block, theencoder switches between an 8×8, two 8×4, or two 4×8 DCTs. A videodecoder adaptively switches block transform sizes in decoding.

According to a second set of techniques and tools in the third group, avideo encoder makes a switching decision for transform sizes in a closedloop (actual testing of the options). Alternatively, the encoder uses anopen loop (estimation of suitability of the options), which emphasizescomputational simplicity over reliability.

According to a third set of techniques and tools in the third group, avideo encoder makes a switching decision for transform sizes at theframe, macroblock, block, and/or other levels. For example, the encoderevaluates the efficiency of switching at frame, macroblock, and blocklevels and embeds flags in the bitstream at the selected switchinglevels. This allows the encoder to find a solution that weighsdistortion reduction/bitrate gain against signaling overhead fordifferent levels (e.g., frame, macroblock, block) of control. A videodecoder reacts to the switching at different levels during decoding.

According to a fourth set of techniques and tools in the third group,for different transform sizes, a video encoder uses different scanpatterns to order the elements of a two-dimensional block of coefficientdata in a one-dimensional array. By using different scan patterns, theencoder decreases the entropy of the values in the one-dimensionalarray, for example, by improving localization of groups of zero values.A video decoder uses the different scan patterns during decoding fordifferent transform sizes.

According to a fifth set of techniques and tools in the third group, avideo encoder uses a sub-block pattern code to indicate the presence orabsence of information for the sub-blocks of a prediction residual. Forexample, a sub-block pattern code indicates which of two 4×8 sub-blockshas associated compressed information in a bitstream and which has nosuch information. A video decoder receives and reacts to sub-blockpattern codes during decoding.

For a fourth group of techniques and tools described herein, thedetailed description is directed to various techniques and tools forprocessing reference frames in a motion estimation/compensation loop ofa video encoder and in a motion compensation loop of a video decoder.The various techniques and tools can be used in combination orindependently.

According to a first set of techniques and tools in the fourth group, avideo encoder applies a deblocking filter to reference frames in amotion estimation/compensation loop. A video decoder applies adeblocking filter to reference frames in a motion compensation loop. Thedeblocking filter smoothes block discontinuities, thereby improving theefficiency of motion estimation by improving prediction/reducing thebitrate of residuals.

According to a second set of techniques and tools in the fourth group, avideo encoder adaptively filters block boundaries in a reference frame.For example, the video encoder filters only those block boundaries thatexceed a filtering threshold, which reduces blurring of image propertiescoincident with block boundaries. A video decoder adaptively filtersblock boundaries in a reference frame.

According to a third set of techniques and tools in the fourth group, avideo encoder uses a short filter to smooth block boundaries in areference frame. Smoothing with the short filter changes fewer pixels,which helps avoid smoothing that could hurt motion estimation. A videodecoder uses a short filter to smooth block boundaries in a referenceframe.

According to a fourth set of techniques and tools in the fourth group, avideo encoder adaptively enables or disables a deblocking filter in amotion estimation/motion compensation loop. The encoder determineswhether to enable or disable the frame in a closed loop or an open loop.The encoder can enable/disable the deblocking filter on asequence-by-sequence, frame-by-frame, or other basis. A video decoderadaptively enables or disables a deblocking filter in a motioncompensation loop based upon received flags or contextual information.

Additional features and advantages will be made apparent from thefollowing detailed description of different embodiments that proceedswith reference to the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagram showing block-based intraframe compression of an 8×8block of pixels according to prior art.

FIG. 2 is a diagram showing prediction of frequency coefficientsaccording to the prior art.

FIG. 3 is a diagram showing motion estimation in a video encoderaccording to the prior art.

FIG. 4 is a diagram showing block-based interframe compression for an8×8 block of prediction residuals in a video encoder according to theprior art.

FIG. 5 is a diagram showing block-based interframe decompression for an8×8 block of prediction residuals according to the prior art.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram of a suitable computing environment in whichseveral described embodiments may be implemented.

FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a generalized video encoder system used inseveral described embodiments.

FIG. 8 is a block diagram of a generalized video decoder system used inseveral described embodiments.

FIG. 9 is a diagram of extrapolation mode directions and indices used inspatial extrapolation for a block of pixels.

FIG. 10 is a flowchart showing a technique for spatial extrapolation ofblocks of pixels.

FIG. 11 is a diagram of neighboring values used in spatial extrapolationfor a block of pixels.

FIG. 12 is a flowchart showing a technique for selecting a spatialextrapolation mode for a block of pixels using prediction.

FIG. 13 is a diagram of showing a horizontal extrapolation mode used inspatial extrapolation for a block of pixels.

FIGS. 14 a and 14 b are code listings showing pseudocode for variousextrapolation modes that reference the neighboring values of FIG. 11, asused in spatial extrapolation for a block of pixels.

FIGS. 14 c and 14 d show pseudocode and weights used for thebi-directional extrapolation mode.

FIG. 15 is a flowchart showing a technique for encoding extrapolationmode information in a video encoder.

FIG. 16 is a flowchart showing a technique for decoding extrapolationmode information in a video decoder.

FIGS. 17 a and 17 b are graphs illustrating a difference between regularand re-oriented inverse frequency transforms.

FIG. 18 is a flowchart showing a technique for encoding a block ofspatial extrapolation error values using one of multiple availablere-oriented frequency transforms.

FIG. 19 a is a diagram showing encoding of a block of spatialextrapolation error values using a skewed DCT.

FIG. 19 b is a diagram showing decoding of a block of spatialextrapolation error values using a skewed inverse DCT.

FIGS. 20 a-20 c are code listings showing pseudocode for 8-point IDCToperations for rows and columns in one implementation.

FIG. 21 is a chart showing weights used in a skewed inverse DCT.

FIG. 22 is a flowchart showing techniques for encoding and decoding ablock of spatial extrapolation error values using lifting and inverselifting, respectively, in transforms.

FIG. 23 is a chart showing weights used in non-flat quantization anddequantization of frequency coefficients.

FIG. 24 is a flowchart showing a technique for scanning residual blockvalues into a one-dimensional array using one of multiple available scanpatterns.

FIGS. 25 a-25 c are charts showing different scan patterns for scanningresidual block values into a one-dimensional array in oneimplementation.

FIG. 26 is a flowchart showing a technique for selecting and switchingbetween entropy code tables for encoding or decoding frequencycoefficients for spatial extrapolation error values.

FIG. 27 is a flowchart showing a technique for applying a deblockingfilter to blocks of a frame in a spatial extrapolation loop.

FIG. 28 is a diagram showing a horizontal deblocking filter used inspatial extrapolation of blocks of pixels.

FIG. 29 is a flowchart showing a technique for selecting a motionestimation resolution for a predicted frame in a video encoder.

FIGS. 30 a and 30 b are flowcharts showing techniques for computing andevaluating motion vectors of a predicted frame in a video encoder.

FIG. 31 is a chart showing search locations for sub-pixel motionestimation.

FIG. 32 is a chart showing sub-pixel locations with values computed byinterpolation in sub-pixel motion estimation.

FIG. 33 is a flowchart showing a technique for entropy decoding motionvectors of different resolutions in a video decoder.

FIG. 34 is a flowchart of a technique for encoding residual blocks withsub-block transforms selected at switching levels in a video encoder.

FIGS. 35 a-35 c are diagrams showing transform coding of a block ofprediction residuals using one of several available transform sizes.

FIGS. 36 a-36 d are code listings showing example pseudocode for 4-pointand 8-point IDCT operations for rows and columns.

FIG. 37 is a diagram showing decompression and inverse transform codingof a block of prediction residuals using inverse sub-block transforms.

FIGS. 38 a-38 f are flowcharts of a closed loop technique for settingtransform sizes for prediction residuals of a frame in a video encoder.

FIG. 39 is a flowchart showing a technique for switching transform sizesin a video decoder.

FIG. 40 is a flowchart showing a technique for selecting one of multipleavailable scan patterns for a prediction residual for amotion-compensated block.

FIGS. 41 a-41 c are charts showing scan patterns in one implementation.

FIG. 42 is a flowchart showing a technique for using sub-block patterncodes in a video decoder.

FIG. 43 is a block diagram showing a motion estimation/compensation loopwith deblocking of a reference frame in a video encoder.

FIG. 44 is a block diagram showing a motion compensation loop withdeblocking of a reference frame in a video decoder.

FIG. 45 is a flowchart showing a technique for loop filtering ofreference frames.

FIG. 46 is a chart showing boundary pixel locations in rows of areference frame that are filtered with a deblocking filter.

FIG. 47 is a chart showing boundary pixel locations columns of areference frame that are filtered with a deblocking filter.

FIG. 48 is a chart showing pixel locations for filtering a verticalline.

FIG. 49 is a chart showing pixel locations for filtering a horizontalline.

FIG. 50 is a code listing showing pseudocode for a filtering operationperformed on pixels in horizontal or vertical lines.

FIG. 51 is a flowchart showing a technique for adaptively filteringboundary pixels of a reference frame in a loop.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present application relates to techniques and tools for videoencoding and decoding. In various described embodiments, a video encoderincorporates techniques that improve the efficiency of interframecoding, a video decoder incorporates techniques that improve theefficiency of interframe decoding, and a bitstream format includes flagsand other codes to incorporate the techniques.

The various techniques and tools can be used in combination orindependently. Different embodiments implement one or more of thedescribed techniques and tools.

I. Computing Environment

FIG. 6 illustrates a generalized example of a suitable computingenvironment (600) in which several of the described embodiments may beimplemented. The computing environment (600) is not intended to suggestany limitation as to scope of use or functionality, as the techniquesand tools may be implemented in diverse general-purpose orspecial-purpose computing environments.

With reference to FIG. 6, the computing environment (600) includes atleast one processing unit (610) and memory (620). In FIG. 6, this mostbasic configuration (630) is included within a dashed line. Theprocessing unit (610) executes computer-executable instructions and maybe a real or a virtual processor. In a multi-processing system, multipleprocessing units execute computer-executable instructions to increaseprocessing power. The memory (620) may be volatile memory (e.g.,registers, cache, RAM), non-volatile memory (e.g., ROM, EEPROM, flashmemory, etc.), or some combination of the two. The memory (620) storessoftware (680) implementing a video encoder or decoder.

A computing environment may have additional features. For example, thecomputing environment (600) includes storage (640), one or more inputdevices (650), one or more output devices (660), and one or morecommunication connections (670). An interconnection mechanism (notshown) such as a bus, controller, or network interconnects thecomponents of the computing environment (600). Typically, operatingsystem software (not shown) provides an operating environment for othersoftware executing in the computing environment (600), and coordinatesactivities of the components of the computing environment (600).

The storage (640) may be removable or non-removable, and includesmagnetic disks, magnetic tapes or cassettes, CD-ROMs, DVDs, or any othermedium which can be used to store information and which can be accessedwithin the computing environment (600). The storage (640) storesinstructions for the software (680) implementing the video encoder ordecoder.

The input device(s) (650) may be a touch input device such as akeyboard, mouse, pen, or trackball, a voice input device, a scanningdevice, or another device that provides input to the computingenvironment (600). For audio or video encoding, the input device(s)(650) may be a sound card, video card, TV tuner card, or similar devicethat accepts audio or video input in analog or digital form, or a CD-ROMor CD-RW that reads audio or video samples into the computingenvironment (600). The output device(s) (660) may be a display, printer,speaker, CD-writer, or another device that provides output from thecomputing environment (600).

The communication connection(s) (670) enable communication over acommunication medium to another computing entity. The communicationmedium conveys information such as computer-executable instructions,audio or video input or output, or other data in a modulated datasignal. A modulated data signal is a signal that has one or more of itscharacteristics set or changed in such a manner as to encode informationin the signal. By way of example, and not limitation, communicationmedia include wired or wireless techniques implemented with anelectrical, optical, RF, infrared, acoustic, or other carrier.

The techniques and tools can be described in the general context ofcomputer-readable media. Computer-readable media are any available mediathat can be accessed within a computing environment. By way of example,and not limitation, with the computing environment (600),computer-readable media include memory (620), storage (640),communication media, and combinations of any of the above.

The techniques and tools can be described in the general context ofcomputer-executable instructions, such as those included in programmodules, being executed in a computing environment on a target real orvirtual processor. Generally, program modules include routines,programs, libraries, objects, classes, components, data structures, etc.that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract datatypes. The functionality of the program modules may be combined or splitbetween program modules as desired in various embodiments.Computer-executable instructions for program modules may be executedwithin a local or distributed computing environment.

For the sake of presentation, the detailed description uses terms like“determine,” “select,” “adjust,” and “apply” to describe computeroperations in a computing environment. These terms are high-levelabstractions for operations performed by a computer, and should not beconfused with acts performed by a human being. The actual computeroperations corresponding to these terms vary depending onimplementation.

II. Generalized Video Encoder and Decoder

FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a generalized video encoder (700) and FIG.8 is a block diagram of a generalized video decoder (800).

The relationships shown between modules within the encoder and decoderindicate the main flow of information in the encoder and decoder; otherrelationships are not shown for the sake of simplicity. In particular,FIGS. 7 and 8 usually do not show side information indicating theencoder settings, modes, tables, etc. used for a video sequence, frame,macroblock, block, etc. Such side information is sent in the outputbitstream, typically after entropy encoding of the side information. Theformat of the output bitstream can be Windows Media Video version 8format or another format.

The encoder (700) and decoder (800) are block-based and use a 4:2:0macroblock format with each macroblock including 4 luminance 8×8luminance blocks (at times treated as one 16×16 macroblock) and two 8×8chrominance blocks. Alternatively, the encoder (700) and decoder (800)are object-based, use a different macroblock or block format, or performoperations on sets of pixels of different size or configuration than 8×8blocks and 16×16 macroblocks.

Depending on implementation and the type of compression desired, modulesof the encoder or decoder can be added, omitted, split into multiplemodules, combined with other modules, and/or replaced with like modules.In alternative embodiments, encoder or decoders with different modulesand/or other configurations of modules perform one or more of thedescribed techniques.

A. Video Encoder

FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a general video encoder system (700). Theencoder system (700) receives a sequence of video frames including acurrent frame (705), and produces compressed video information (795) asoutput. Particular embodiments of video encoders typically use avariation or supplemented version of the generalized encoder (700).

The encoder system (700) compresses predicted frames and key frames. Forthe sake of presentation, FIG. 7 shows a path for key frames through theencoder system (700) and a path for forward-predicted frames. Many ofthe components of the encoder system (700) are used for compressing bothkey frames and predicted frames. The exact operations performed by thosecomponents can vary depending on the type of information beingcompressed.

A predicted frame [also called p-frame, b-frame for bi-directionalprediction, or inter-coded frame] is represented in terms of prediction(or difference) from one or more other frames. A prediction residual isthe difference between what was predicted and the original frame. Incontrast, a key frame [also called i-frame, intra-coded frame] iscompressed without reference to other frames.

If the current frame (705) is a forward-predicted frame, a motionestimator (710) estimates motion of macroblocks or other sets of pixelsof the current frame (705) with respect to a reference frame, which isthe reconstructed previous frame (725) buffered in the frame store(720). In alternative embodiments, the reference frame is a later frameor the current frame is bi-directionally predicted. The motion estimator(710) can estimate motion by pixel, ½ pixel, ¼ pixel, or otherincrements, and can switch the resolution of the motion estimation on aframe-by-frame basis or other basis. The resolution of the motionestimation can be the same or different horizontally and vertically. Themotion estimator (710) outputs as side information motion information(715) such as motion vectors. A motion compensator (730) applies themotion information (715) to the reconstructed previous frame (725) toform a motion-compensated current frame (735). The prediction is rarelyperfect, however, and the difference between the motion-compensatedcurrent frame (735) and the original current frame (705) is theprediction residual (745). Alternatively, a motion estimator and motioncompensator apply another type of motion estimation/compensation.

A frequency transformer (760) converts the spatial domain videoinformation into frequency domain (i.e., spectral) data. For block-basedvideo frames, the frequency transformer (760) applies a discrete cosinetransform [“DCT”] or variant of DCT to blocks of the pixel data orprediction residual data, producing blocks of DCT coefficients.Alternatively, the frequency transformer (760) applies anotherconventional frequency transform such as a Fourier transform or useswavelet or subband analysis. In embodiments in which the encoder usesspatial extrapolation (not shown in FIG. 7) to encode blocks of keyframes, the frequency transformer (760) can apply a re-orientedfrequency transform such as a skewed DCT to blocks of predictionresiduals for the key frame. In other embodiments, the frequencytransformer (760) applies an 8×8, 8×4, 4×8, or other size frequencytransforms (e.g., DCT) to prediction residuals for predicted frames.

A quantizer (770) then quantizes the blocks of spectral datacoefficients. The quantizer applies uniform, scalar quantization to thespectral data with a step-size that varies on a frame-by-frame basis orother basis. Alternatively, the quantizer applies another type ofquantization to the spectral data coefficients, for example, anon-uniform, vector, or non-adaptive quantization, or directly quantizesspatial domain data in an encoder system that does not use frequencytransformations. In addition to adaptive quantization, the encoder (700)can use frame dropping, adaptive filtering, or other techniques for ratecontrol.

When a reconstructed current frame is needed for subsequent motionestimation/compensation, an inverse quantizer (776) performs inversequantization on the quantized spectral data coefficients. An inversefrequency transformer (766) then performs the inverse of the operationsof the frequency transformer (760), producing a reconstructed predictionresidual (for a predicted frame) or a reconstructed key frame. If thecurrent frame (705) was a key frame, the reconstructed key frame istaken as the reconstructed current frame (not shown). If the currentframe (705) was a predicted frame, the reconstructed prediction residualis added to the motion-compensated current frame (735) to form thereconstructed current frame. The frame store (720) buffers thereconstructed current frame for use in predicting the next frame. Insome embodiments, the encoder applies a deblocking filter to thereconstructed frame to adaptively smooth discontinuities in the blocksof the frame.

The entropy coder (780) compresses the output of the quantizer (770) aswell as certain side information (e.g., motion information (715),spatial extrapolation modes, quantization step size). Typical entropycoding techniques include arithmetic coding, differential coding,Huffman coding, run length coding, LZ coding, dictionary coding, andcombinations of the above. The entropy coder (780) typically usesdifferent coding techniques for different kinds of information (e.g., DCcoefficients, AC coefficients, different kinds of side information), andcan choose from among multiple code tables within a particular codingtechnique.

The entropy coder (780) puts compressed video information (795) in thebuffer (790). A buffer level indicator is fed back to bitrate adaptivemodules.

The compressed video information (795) is depleted from the buffer (790)at a constant or relatively constant bitrate and stored for subsequentstreaming at that bitrate. Therefore, the level of the buffer (790) isprimarily a function of the entropy of the filtered, quantized videoinformation, which affects the efficiency of the entropy coding.Alternatively, the encoder system (700) streams compressed videoinformation immediately following compression, and the level of thebuffer (790) also depends on the rate at which information is depletedfrom the buffer (790) for transmission.

Before or after the buffer (790), the compressed video information (795)can be channel coded for transmission over the network. The channelcoding can apply error detection and correction data to the compressedvideo information (795).

B. Video Decoder

FIG. 8 is a block diagram of a general video decoder system (800). Thedecoder system (800) receives information (895) for a compressedsequence of video frames and produces output including a reconstructedframe (805). Particular embodiments of video decoders typically use avariation or supplemented version of the generalized decoder (800).

The decoder system (800) decompresses predicted frames and key frames.For the sake of presentation, FIG. 8 shows a path for key frames throughthe decoder system (800) and a path for forward-predicted frames. Manyof the components of the decoder system (800) are used for compressingboth key frames and predicted frames. The exact operations performed bythose components can vary depending on the type of information beingcompressed.

A buffer (890) receives the information (895) for the compressed videosequence and makes the received information available to the entropydecoder (880). The buffer (890) typically receives the information at arate that is fairly constant over time, and includes a jitter buffer tosmooth short-term variations in bandwidth or transmission. The buffer(890) can include a playback buffer and other buffers as well.Alternatively, the buffer (890) receives information at a varying rate.Before or after the buffer (890), the compressed video information canbe channel decoded and processed for error detection and correction.

The entropy decoder (880) entropy decodes entropy-coded quantized dataas well as entropy-coded side information (e.g., motion information(815), spatial extrapolation modes, quantization step size), typicallyapplying the inverse of the entropy encoding performed in the encoder.Entropy decoding techniques include arithmetic decoding, differentialdecoding, Huffman decoding, run length decoding, LZ decoding, dictionarydecoding, and combinations of the above. The entropy decoder (880)frequently uses different decoding techniques for different kinds ofinformation (e.g., DC coefficients, AC coefficients, different kinds ofside information), and can choose from among multiple code tables withina particular decoding technique.

If the frame (805) to be reconstructed is a forward-predicted frame, amotion compensator (830) applies motion information (815) to a referenceframe (825) to form a prediction (835) of the frame (805) beingreconstructed. For example, the motion compensator (830) uses amacroblock motion vector to find a macroblock in the reference frame(825). A frame buffer (820) stores previous reconstructed frames for useas reference frames. The motion compensator (830) can compensate formotion at pixel, ½ pixel, ¼ pixel, or other increments, and can switchthe resolution of the motion compensation on a frame-by-frame basis orother basis. The resolution of the motion compensation can be the sameor different horizontally and vertically. Alternatively, a motioncompensator applies another type of motion compensation. The predictionby the motion compensator is rarely perfect, so the decoder (800) alsoreconstructs prediction residuals.

When the decoder needs a reconstructed frame for subsequent motioncompensation, the frame store (820) buffers the reconstructed frame foruse in predicting the next frame. In some embodiments, the encoderapplies a deblocking filter to the reconstructed frame to adaptivelysmooth discontinuities in the blocks of the frame.

An inverse quantizer (870) inverse quantizes entropy-decoded data. Ingeneral, the inverse quantizer applies uniform, scalar inversequantization to the entropy-decoded data with a step-size that varies ona frame-by-frame basis or other basis. Alternatively, the inversequantizer applies another type of inverse quantization to the data, forexample, a non-uniform, vector, or non-adaptive quantization, ordirectly inverse quantizes spatial domain data in a decoder system thatdoes not use inverse frequency transformations.

An inverse frequency transformer (860) converts the quantized, frequencydomain data into spatial domain video information. For block-based videoframes, the inverse frequency transformer (860) applies an inverse DCT[“IDCT”] or variant of IDCT to blocks of the DCT coefficients, producingpixel data or prediction residual data for key frames or predictedframes, respectively. Alternatively, the frequency transformer (860)applies another conventional inverse frequency transform such as aFourier transform or uses wavelet or subband synthesis. In embodimentsin which the decoder uses spatial extrapolation (not shown in FIG. 8) todecode blocks of key frames, the inverse frequency transformer (860) canapply a re-oriented inverse frequency transform such as a skewed IDCT toblocks of prediction residuals for the key frame. In other embodiments,the inverse frequency transformer (860) applies an 8×8, 8×4, 4×8, orother size inverse frequency transforms (e.g., IDCT) to predictionresiduals for predicted frames.

III. Intraframe Encoding and Decoding

In one or more embodiments, a video encoder exploits redundancies intypical still images in order to code the information using a smallernumber of bits. The video encoder uses spatial extrapolation of acurrent block of the image being encoded from its previously decodedneighborhood in the image. The encoder encodes information describingthe direction and type of the spatial extrapolation, and then encodesthe difference between the block as predicted with spatial extrapolationand the original block. Various features of the spatial extrapolationcan be used in combination or independently. These features include, butare not limited to:

1a) Using spatial extrapolation in an encoder or decoder to reduce blockentropy in intraframe compression.

1b) Using one of multiple extrapolation modes in an encoder or decoder.The modes can include linear directional, blended, and/or bi-directionalmodes.

2a) Prediction of extrapolation mode for a current block from contextualinformation in neighboring blocks. Differential orientations are rankordered conditioned on a predicted extrapolation mode.

2b) Using the rank orderings to compute spatial extrapolations, whichimproves the performance of the encoder.

2c) Selectively transmitting differential orientations, which reducesoverall bitrate.

3a) Using a skewed frequency transform in an encoder or decoder forcoding/decoding a prediction residual for a spatially extrapolatedblock. The skewed frequency transform exploits the non-stationary natureof the prediction residual.

3b) Adaptively disabling the skewed frequency transform, therebypreventing banding artifacts.

4) Using one of multiple scan patterns depending on extrapolation modein an encoder or decoder.

5a) Using contextual information in neighboring blocks to select entropycode tables in an encoder or decoder.

5b) Using contextual information in neighboring blocks to switch entropycode tables in an encoder or decoder.

6a) Using a deblocking filter in a spatial extrapolation loop in anencoder or decoder to smooth block discontinuities, which improvesspatial extrapolation.

6b) Using an adaptive deblocking filter in such a spatial extrapolationloop.

Spatial extrapolation is performed on a block basis across the luminancechannel for macroblocks in 4:2:0 or another macroblock format. In thechrominance channels, coding takes place block by block, with thespatial extrapolation information being pulled from the correspondingluminance blocks. The extrapolation mode (sometimes called theorientation mode or prediction mode) determines the specific operationused to extrapolate the block. In general, side information regardingthe mode of a block is transmitted as part of the bitstream (exceptionsare dealt with later).

With reference to FIG. 9, in general, the encoding process takes placeas follows: the current 8×8 block (900) is extrapolated entirely fromits causal neighbors given a certain extrapolation mode. By definition,the causal neighborhood is generated by decoding the previously codedblocks (910, 920, 930, 940) of the image. The difference between thecurrent block (900) and its extrapolation is computed. The 8×8difference matrix is further coded using a linear transform (a modifiedversion of the DCT in some embodiments). Transform coefficients arequantized, zigzag scanned and run length encoded. Decoding is theinverse process of encoding. The prediction mode and causal neighborhoodare known at the decoder. Using this information, the extrapolation ofthe current block is generated. The dequantized difference matrix isregenerated from the bitstream, and is added to the extrapolation togenerate the decoded block.

A. Extrapolation Modes

Extrapolation modes are sets of rules that determine the extrapolationof the current block from its causal neighborhood. Each mode isassociated with a distinct extrapolator, and one out of these modes ispicked for encoding the current block. In one implementation, the videoencoder and decoder uses thirteen extrapolation modes. These includehorizontal, vertical and seven diagonal extrapolations of the predictingedges (i.e. edge pixels of the causal neighbor blocks abutting thecurrent block), smooth blends of horizontal and vertical predictions,and a bi-directional diffusion type operation called the nullprediction. In addition, there is a mode used when the causal blockshave negligible variation (flat condition). FIG. 9 shows the generaldirections and indices for the horizontal, vertical, and diagonalextrapolation modes. In alternative embodiments, the encoder and decoderuse more or fewer than thirteen modes, each configured the same ordifferently than a mode described below.

FIG. 10 shows a general technique (1000) for spatial extrapolation ofblocks of pixels. For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 10 does not show thevarious ways in which the technique (1000) can be used in conjunctionwith other techniques.

A video encoder gets (1010) a block of pixels such as an 8×8 block ofpixels in a key frame. The encoder initializes (1020) the context forthe block by initializing data structures and settings used to selectthe extrapolation mode for the block. For example, the encoderinitializes arrays as shown in FIG. 11. Alternatively, the encoder usesother data structures.

The video encoder selects (1030) an extrapolation mode for the block.For example, the video encoder selects a mode from among the thirteenmodes described below. The video encoder can select an extrapolationmode using prediction of the extrapolation mode as shown in FIG. 12, aclosed-loop (actual coding) or open-loop (estimation) search across allor a subset of extrapolation modes, or another selection technique.

The encoder encodes (1050) the extrapolation mode for transmission asside information. For example, the encoder encodes an index representinga differential ordering in a rank order for extrapolation modes selectedusing prediction. Alternatively, the encoder encodes the extrapolationmode using a Huffman code or other entropy code, or sends theextrapolation mode as a literal value. In some embodiments, the encoderneed not encode or send the extrapolation mode for a block if theextrapolation mode can be derived using contextual information availableto the encoder and the decoder. Orientation information is nottransmitted for the chrominance channels in any case. Chrominance blocksuse a meta-direction of the top-left block in the correspondingluminance macroblock. Alternatively, an encoder selects a spatialextrapolation mode and encodes mode information for chrominance blocksas well as luminance blocks.

The encoder encodes (1070) the residual error between the original blockand the spatially extrapolated block. For example, the encoder uses askewed DCT, which can be selected from among one or more availableskewed DCTs. Alternatively, the encoder uses another frequency transformor sends the residual in an uncompressed form. In some embodiments, theencoder does not encode or send the residual, for example, due tobitrate constraints, because the spatial extrapolation alone isadequate, or because the encoder did not compute a residual. The encodercan also use entropy encoding to encode the residual, as describedbelow.

The encoder reconstructs the block so that the block can be used forspatial extrapolation of other blocks in the frame. In some embodiments,the encoder applies a deblocking filter to the reconstructed block tosmooth block discontinuities with other, previously reconstructedblocks.

The encoder determines (1080) whether there are more blocks in the keyframe. If not, the technique (1000) ends. If so, the encoder gets (1090)the next block in the key frame and initializes the context (1020) forit.

1. Initializing Context for a Block

FIG. 11 shows contextual information (1100) and data structures used forspatial extrapolation of a predicted block of pixels in oneimplementation. The contextual information (1100) comes from blocks tothe immediate left, top-left, top, and top-right of the predicted block.Selected pixels from the neighboring blocks are organized intoone-dimensional arrays. The selected pixels are numbered and labeled forthe sake of presentation. The contextual information (1100) and datastructures are functionally related to the extrapolation modes describedin detail below. Alternative implementations use a differentconfiguration of contextual information and data structures.

In one implementation, the encoder predicts the orientation for thecurrent block from that of it causal neighbors. The predictedextrapolation mode can be null, horizontal or vertical. If the currentblock is at the top left corner of the image, the predictedextrapolation mode is null. Otherwise, if the current block is in thetopmost row, the predicted extrapolation mode is horizontal (8), or ifthe current block is in leftmost column, the predicted extrapolationmode is vertical (4). In other cases, the predicted extrapolation modeis a function of the top-left (TL), left (L) and top (T) blockmeta-directions.

The encoder maps a meta-direction from an actual orientation direction,for example, as shown to Table 2. Alternatively, the encoder uses alinear function or other non-linear function to map an actualorientation direction to a meta-direction.

TABLE 2 Mapping Actual Orientation Directions to Meta-directions ActualOrientation Meta-direction Horizontal (8) H (8) Vertical (4) V (4) Allothers Null (0)

Based on the meta-directions of the top-left (TL), left (L) and top (T)blocks, and a quantization parameter [“QP”], the encoder computes thepredicted extrapolation mode, for example, as shown in Table 3.Alternatively, the encoder uses a linear or other non-linear function tocompute a predicted extrapolation mode for a block from themeta-directions from the neighboring blocks, or uses more or fewerpredicted modes than Table 3. Working with the same contextualinformation during decoding, the decoder can also compute a predictedextrapolation mode for the predicted block.

TABLE 3 Determining Predicted Extrapolation Mode from Meta-Directions LT Predicted Extrapolation Mode Notes X X X If the meta-directions ofblocks L and T are the same, use the meta-direction as the predictedmode. H 0 H Horizontal continuity from left. 0 V V Vertical continuityfrom top. H V H Horizontal continuity over- rides vertical. V H Codesegment: if (TL==L) PEM=T; else { if (QP>12) PEM=T; else { if (TL==T)PEM=L; else PEM=TL; } }

With reference to FIG. 11, a first one-dimensional array (1110) labeledpLeft[ ] includes 17 pixel values from the left and top-left. A secondone-dimensional array (1120) labeled pTop[ ] includes 32 pixel valuesfrom the top and top-right blocks. A two-dimensional array labeledpCurr[ ] stores pixels values for the predicted block.

Before spatial extrapolation of a block, the encoder performs a set ofoperations on the causal predicting edges. A decoder performs the sameoperations on the same causal predicting edges, such that the encoderand decoder can use the same information for spatial extrapolation andcontext. The encoder and decoder use the pixel information whenevaluating extrapolation modes, and can also use contextual informationto select extrapolations modes by default under certain circumstances.

First, the encoder/decoder fills the arrays pLeft[ ] and pTop[ ]. If thepredicted block is at the top left boundary of a key frame, allneighbors pLeft[ ] and pTop[ ] are set to 128. If the predicted block ison the top row (but not at the left extreme), pLeft[0] and pTop[ ] areset to pLeft[1]. If the predicted block is in the first column (but notat the top extreme), all elements of pLeft[ ] are set to pTop[0]. Theneighboring elements are copied from the causal reconstructed neighborblocks of the current color plane.

Next, the encoder/decoder computes contextual information. Specifically,the encoder/decoder computes the range of the immediate neighbors (i.e.,the maximum value minus the minimum value of pLeft[0 . . . 8] and pTop[0. . . 7]). In general, a large range indicates extrapolation could beuseful for the predicted block; a small range indicates the predictedblock is likely similar to the neighboring blocks, and the predictedextrapolation mode will likely suffice. For example, if the range iseither less than QP or less than 3, the predicted extrapolation mode ofthe predicted block is reset to the null predictor. If range is lessthan 3, flat mode is activated, which is described below.

For luminance channels, if the range is smaller than 2QP, and thepredicted block is not on the top or left periphery of the image,horizontal and vertical predicted extrapolation modes are changed toblended horizontal and blended vertical modes, which are describedbelow. Also, if the range is smaller than 2QP, the orientation mode isnot transmitted (or received). This ensures that bits are not wastedtransmitting spatial orientation information if there is littleinformation in the causal boundary to begin with.

Alternatively, the encoder/decoder compute other contextual informationand/or check other contextual conditions.

2. Selecting an Extrapolation Mode

FIG. 12 shows a technique for selecting an extrapolation mode usingprediction. Prediction of extrapolation mode can speed up the selectionprocess in the encoder and reduce the average bitrate associated withsending extrapolation mode information to the decoder. For the sake ofsimplicity, FIG. 12 does not show the various ways in which thetechnique (1200) can be used in conjunction with other techniques.

The encoder computes (1210) a predicted extrapolation mode, as describedabove. The encoder then initializes (1220) the context for the block anddetermines (1225) whether the encoder needs to check other extrapolationmodes, as described above. If the context indicates what theextrapolation mode should be for the block, the technique (1200) ends.For example, the range of the immediate neighboring pixels of the blockmight indicate that the mode should be blended horizontal, blendedvertical, or flat.

Otherwise, the encoder then checks (1230) an extrapolation mode in arank order associated with predicted extrapolation mode. For example,exemplary rank orders for null, horizontal, and vertical predictedextrapolation modes are shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Exemplary Rank Orders Predicted Mode Rank Orders Null intorderArray[ ] = {0, 8, 4, 10, 11, 2, 6, 9, 1, 3, 5, 7}; Horizontal intorderArrayH[ ] = {8, 0, 4, 10, 11, 1, 7, 2, 6, 9, 3, 5}; Vertical intorderArrayV[ ] = {4, 0, 8, 11, 10, 3, 5, 2, 6, 9, 1, 7};

Alternatively, the encoder uses different rank orders.

The rank orders indicate by mode index the order in which the encodershould try extrapolation modes. The first element of each array is theassociated predicted extrapolation mode, and the remaining modes areordered roughly according to likelihood of suitability for the block.Later, shorter variable length codes can be assigned to indices early ina rank order, and longer variable length codes to indices later in therank order.

The encoder checks (1230) an extrapolation mode by applying theextrapolation to the block and comparing the spatial extrapolation tothe original block. The encoder can measure the magnitude of thedifference in the spatial domain or in the frequency domain (e.g., DCTof the difference block) with an error measure. The error measure is asum of absolute differences [“SAD”], mean square error [“MSE”], aperceptual distortion measure, or other error measure. The encoder canalso consider the relative bit costs of variable length codes associatedwith extrapolation mode information when evaluating the fitness of anextrapolation mode, which favors modes with shorter correspondingvariable length codes (which typically appear earlier in the rankorder).

In one implementation, if the encoder determines that the orientation ofa certain 8×8 block is significant, the encoder estimates theorientation. The estimation process starts by rank-ordering 12 possibleorientation directions in one of three orderings corresponding to theprediction meta-direction (as shown in the rank orders above).

The encoder then computes a cost function for each orientation. The costfunction considers the difference between the actual pixel values of theblock being encoded and the spatial extrapolation resulting fromapplying the particular orientation. The cost function is a compositeof: (1) the quantization error of the DCT coefficients associated withthe error signal, (2) a simplification of the run-length information,and (3) a base cost corresponding to the rank order of the particularorientation.

The base cost is defined as

$\begin{matrix}{{{C\_ base} = 0},} & {{{{{for}\mspace{14mu} {rank}} = 0},1,2}} \\{= {32^{*}{QP}}} & {{{{for}\mspace{14mu} {ranks}\mspace{14mu} 3},4}} \\{= {64^{*}{QP}}} & {{{{for}\mspace{14mu} {ranks}\mspace{14mu} 5\mspace{14mu} \ldots \mspace{14mu} 11\mspace{14mu} {in}\mspace{14mu} {the}\mspace{14mu} {rank}\mspace{14mu} {order}},}}\end{matrix}$

where QP is the quantization parameter. The quantization error isdefined as:

abs(reconstructed_value−unquantized_value)  (1),

which is summed over all coefficients (i.e., SAD). Coefficients that arequantized to zero have the quantization error:

abs(unquantized_value)  (2).

The simplified run-length cost is only accrued for coefficientsquantized to non-zero values. This cost is given by:

(index+32)*QP  (3),

where index is the scan order index in the appropriate zigzag scan orderfor the current orientation. Scan orders are described below.

In other implementations, the encoder uses different cost functionsand/or considers more or less information. Alternatively, the encoderevaluates the fitness of an extrapolation mode using an open-loop orheuristic approach.

The encoder determines (1250) whether it should continue checkingadditional extrapolation modes. The encoder stops if it has checked thelast extrapolation mode in a rank order. The encoder can do a fullsearch of all extrapolation modes. Alternatively, the encoder terminatesthe search if certain conditions are satisfied. For example, the encoderterminates the search if the fitness measure for the mode the encoderjust checked exceeds the fitness measure of the best mode checked sofar, with the assumption that matches get worse further down in the rankorder. Or, the encoder can terminate on other conditions.

If the encoder determines (1250) it should not continue, the technique(1200) ends and the encoder goes on with the encoding of theextrapolation mode and residual error, reconstruction, etc. Otherwise,the encoder gets (1270) and checks (1230) the next extrapolation mode inthe rank order.

3. Horizontal and Vertical Modes

FIG. 13 illustrates horizontal extrapolation mode (mode index 8). On arow-by-row basis, the pixel values a and b in the two rightmost columns(1312, 1314) in the reconstructed block (1310) to the left of thepredicted block (1330) are averaged. The averaged value c is copiedacross all columns of the corresponding row of the predicted block.

$\begin{matrix}{{c = \left\lfloor \frac{a + b + 1}{2} \right\rfloor},} & (4)\end{matrix}$

where └ ┘ is a downward rounding operation.

The vertical extrapolation mode (mode index 4) is the transpose ofhorizontal extrapolation mode. In other words, on a column-by-columnbasis, the pixel values a and b in the bottom two rows of thereconstructed block to the top of the predicted block are averaged. Theaveraged value c is copied across all rows of the corresponding columnof the predicted block.

Alternatively, the encoder and decoder use other formulas for horizontaland vertical extrapolation.

4. Diagonal Modes

FIG. 14 a shows pseudocode (1410) defining predictors for additionalmodes for spatial extrapolation, including seven diagonal extrapolationmodes. The diagonal extrapolation modes (with mode indices 1-3, 5-7 and9) roughly correspond to extrapolations in increments of approximately22.5 degrees proceeding counter-clockwise.

Alternatively, the encoder and decoder use other formulas for diagonalextrapolation.

5. Blended Modes

FIG. 14 b shows pseudocode (1420) for two additional extrapolation modes(indices 10 and 11), a blended horizontal mode and a blended verticalmode. The blended horizontal mode and blended vertical mode blendfeatures from both the top and left blocks while predicting the currentblock. The blend is a linear combination of corresponding horizontal andvertical prediction edge pixels.

The blended modes are the default modes under certain circumstances,depending on context. For example, for some blocks, if the range ofimmediate neighboring values is less than 2QP, a blended horizontal orvertical extrapolation mode is used for a horizontal or verticalpredicted mode, respectively, and extrapolation mode information is nottransmitted.

Alternatively, the encoder and decoder use other formulas for blendedextrapolation.

6. Null Mode

The null mode is the most common mode for low bitrate applications. FIG.14 c shows pseudocode (1430) used in a fast implementation of a nullextrapolation mode (mode index 0, also called a bi-directionalextrapolation mode). The null extrapolation mode extrapolates thecurrent block from its causal neighbors independent of direction. Theidea is to predict pixel pCurr[i][j] as a linear combination of pTop andpLeft elements (e.g., 12 pTop elements and 8 pLeft elements), withweights being proportional to a negative exponent of the distance. Inpractice, however, this form is slow to compute.

Therefore, in one implementation, the null extrapolation mode is basedon an approximate separable reformulation of the above that is faster tocompute. In this simplification, the encoder computes two arrays ofcumulants corresponding to the pixel locations of the predicting edges.The current predicted pixel is then a linear sum of one element fromeach cumulant array.

The first stage of building the cumulant arrays is to set up an array ofweights roughly corresponding to lowpass filtered left and toppredicting edge pixels. These cumulant arrays are labeled pLeftSum andpTopSum respectively. FIG. 14 c shows pseudocode (1430) used to buildcumulant arrays in this fast implementation.

Once the arrays pLeftSum and pTopSum are set up, the predicted block iscomputed by summing the appropriate element from each array, using therule.pCurr[i][j]=(pTopSum[j]*pWtsT[i][j]+pLeftSum[i]*pWtsL[i][j]+32768)>>16,where the weight arrays pWtsT[i][j] and pWtsL[i][j] are shown in FIG. 14d.

Alternatively, the encoder and decoder use other formulas forbi-directional extrapolation or different weights.

7. Flat Mode

The flat extrapolation mode (no index number) is used undercircumstances in which the encoder finds little significant informationin the causal boundary of the current block. Therefore, the encoderassigns to each pixel of the current block an average value from thecausal boundary. For example, the encoder computes a DC value iDcValue:

$\begin{matrix}{{iDcValue} = {\left\lfloor \frac{{\sum\limits_{0 \leq i \leq 9}{{pTop}\lbrack i\rbrack}} + {\sum\limits_{0 \leq i \leq 8}{{pLeft}\lbrack i\rbrack}} + 9}{19} \right\rfloor.}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

The flat mode is the default mode under certain circumstances, dependingon context. For example, for some blocks, if the range of immediateneighboring values is less than 3, flat mode is used and extrapolationmode information is not transmitted. The residual block for a blockpredicted in flat mode is computed and encoded. Special treatment ofpredicted blocks and residual blocks under flat mode is furtherdescribed below.

Alternatively, the encoder and decoder use other formulas for flatextrapolation.

B. Orientation Transmission

The encoder transmits the orientation of the predicted block (i.e., theextrapolation mode or differential rank ordering) when the decoder needssuch information to determine the actual extrapolation mode of thepredicted block. Under certain circumstances (e.g., the circumstancesdiscussed above with respect to initialization of context), the encoderdoes not transmit (nor does the decoder expect) orientation information.

In one implementation, the encoder transmits orientation informationonly for luminance blocks, not chrominance blocks, of macroblocks. Thechrominance blocks are spatially extrapolated using information providedor derived for the luminance blocks (e.g., information for the top-leftluminance blocks, median information, mean information).

When the encoder selects extrapolation mode using prediction, theencoder can send (and the decoder can receive) extrapolation modeinformation as a difference between the actual extrapolation mode and apredicted extrapolation mode, for example, a rank order differential. Arank order differential is an index in a rank order. The rank order canbe associated with a predicted extrapolation mode, in which case theencoder/decoder selects a rank order conditioned on the direction of thepredicted extrapolation mode. For example, exemplary orderings for null,horizontal, and vertical predicted extrapolation modes are shown abovein Table 4. Alternatively, the encoder uses different rank orders and/orrank orders for more or fewer predicted extrapolation modes.

If a decoder receives a differential index 7 for a block whose predictedextrapolation mode is horizontal, orderArrayH[7] gives the actualorientation to be mode 2 (diagonal from the top-right). Orderings aredesigned for coding efficiency—shorter variable length codes areassigned to earlier indices for more likely modes, and longer variablelength codes are assigned to later indices for less likely modes. Table5 shows Huffman code tables for differential orientation values in oneimplementation. Specifically, Table 5 shows two Huffman code tables fortypical low bitrate conditions (e.g., indicated by QP>12). A flagsignaled in the bitstream indicates which set of codes (e.g., set 0 orset 1) to use. In this implementation, different sets of Huffman codetables are used for typical high bitrate conditions (e.g., indicated byQP<=12). Other implementations use different entropy codes and/ordifferent code tables for different predicted orientations.

TABLE 5 Huffman Codes for Differential Orientation Values, Low BitrateCode Set 0 Code Set 1 DIFFORIENT Code Length Code Length 0  0 2  0 1 1 1 2  2 2 2  4 3  6 3 3  5 3 1c 5 4  6 3 1d 5 5 38 6 78 7 6 1d 5 3d 6 739 6 79 7 8 3c 6 7c 7 9 3d 6 7d 7 10 3e 6 7e 7 11 3f 6 7f 7

FIG. 15 shows a technique for encoding extrapolation mode information,and FIG. 16 shows a technique for decoding extrapolation modeinformation. By transmitting extrapolation mode information only whensuch information cannot be ascertained from context, overall bitrate isreduced and the decoder is sped up. For the sake of simplicity, FIGS. 15and 16 do not show the various ways in which the techniques (1500, 1600)can be used in conjunction with other techniques.

With reference to FIG. 15, an encoder checks (1510) the coding contextfor encoding a predicted block. For example, the encoder checks therange of immediate neighboring pixels to the predicted block.

The encoder determines (1530) whether it needs to send a code or otherextrapolation mode information to the decoder. For example, if the rangeis less than 3 or less than 2 QP, a default mode (e.g., flat, null,horizontal blended, or vertical blended) is used, and the encoder doesnot need to send rank order index information to the decoder. If theencoder does not need to send a code or other information, the techniqueends.

Otherwise, the encoder determines (1550) the predicted orientation ofthe predicted block. For example, the encoder uses the predictedextrapolation mode computed during initialization. The encoder thendetermines (1560) the actual orientation of the predicted block. Forexample, the encoder uses the actual extrapolation mode as computedabove by evaluating potential orientations in a rank ordering.

The encoder outputs (1570) difference information indicating thedifference between the actual orientation and the predicted orientationof the predicted block. For example, the encoder outputs a Huffman codefor a rank order index that indicates the difference between a predictedextrapolation mode and an actual extrapolation mode in a rank order.

With reference to FIG. 16, a decoder checks (1610) the decoding contextfor decoding a predicted block. For example, the decoder checks therange of immediate neighboring pixels to the predicted block.

The decoder determines (1630) whether to expect a code or otherextrapolation mode information from the encoder. For example, if therange is less than 3 or less than 2 QP, a default mode (e.g., flat,null, horizontal blended, or vertical blended) is used, and the encoderdoes not need to send rank order index information to the decoder. Ifthe decoder does not receive a code or other information, the techniqueends.

Otherwise, the decoder determines (1650) the predicted orientation ofthe predicted block. For example, the decoder uses a predictedextrapolation mode computed during initialization.

The decoder then decodes (1660) difference information received from theencoder. The difference information indicates a difference between thepredicted orientation and an actual orientation of the predicted block.For example, the difference information is a Huffman code for a rankorder index that indicates the difference between a predictedextrapolation mode and an actual extrapolation mode in a rank order.

The decoder computes (1670) the actual orientation of the predictedblock. For example, the decoder combines a predicted extrapolation modewith a rank order index to determine an actual extrapolation mode in arank ordering.

C. Re-Oriented Frequency Transform

In the residual block for a spatially extrapolated block of pixels,variance typically increases sharply from points near to point far fromthe abutting causal block(s). The local spatio-frequency description ofthe pixels varies correspondingly. The residual error of spatialprediction is typically smaller at pixels close to the block edgesabutting causal block(s) from which the prediction is made. For example,for a block predicted in null mode, the abutting causal blocks are boththe left and top blocks. For a horizontal (alt. vertical) extrapolator,pixels lying on the left column (alt. top row) show smaller predictionresiduals.

These observations suggest the use of a re-oriented frequency transformthat shows an upward trend in values at spatial locations away from theprediction edge(s). The re-oriented frequency transform addressesnon-stationarity of prediction residuals, resulting in more efficientcompression of the prediction residuals.

FIGS. 17 a and 17 b are graphs illustrating a difference between regularand re-oriented inverse frequency transforms for a row of 8 residualpixels represented with a DC coefficient of 1 and AC coefficients of 0.FIG. 17 a shows the values if reconstructed using a regular inversefrequency transform. Each value has the average value represented by theDC coefficient. FIG. 17 b shows the values if reconstructed using are-oriented inverse frequency transform. The values start at the averagevalue for the early residual pixels, but increase for the later residualpixels. In FIG. 17 b, the re-oriented frequency transform has aninfluence only on the DC coefficient, while sparing the AC coefficientsof the block from modifications. In alternative embodiments, there-oriented frequency transform has an influence on one or more of theAC coefficients as well.

One embodiment of a re-oriented frequency transform uses basis functionsthat show an upward trend in values at spatial locations away from theprediction edge(s). Such basis functions are not easily implemented inpractice. Therefore, some embodiments of a re-oriented frequencytransform use an approximation of such an ideal frequency transform toexploit non-stationarity across pixels in a residual block in theencoding of the residual block. The approximation uses lifting in theencoder and inverse lifting in the decoder. In contrast to prior artmethods that use lifting in the spatial domain, the encoder and decoderuse lifting and inverse lifting in the frequency domain.

A video encoder can switch between multiple available re-orientedfrequency transform modes, as shown in FIG. 18. The encoder selects(1810) a re-oriented frequency transform mode. For example, depending onthe general orientation of the spatial extrapolation used for apredicted block, the encoder selects from among re-oriented transformsthat skew the residual block vertically, horizontally, bi-directionally,or not at all. The horizontal re-oriented transform is used forpredictors that are largely horizontal (e.g., extrapolation orientationof ±π/8 to the horizontal axis). Likewise, the vertical re-orientedtransform is used for vertical and near-vertical extrapolators. Thebi-directional transform is used for the null and largely diagonalextrapolation directions. All other predictions use a regular transform.The video encoder can switch transform modes for luminance blocks andchrominance blocks with the same decision or different decisions. Theencoder then applies the selected type of transform (1820, 1830, 1840,1850) to the residual block. While FIG. 18 shows four availabletransform modes (including regular mode), alternative embodiments usemore or fewer transform modes, transform modes in different directions,and/or other criteria for selecting transform mode. For the sake ofsimplicity, FIG. 18 does not show the various ways in which thetechnique (1800) can be used in conjunction with other techniques.

In one implementation, the re-oriented transforms are re-orientedvariations of DCT termed skewed DCT. Using a skewed DCT results inimproved coding efficiency. The skew of the DCT is horizontal, vertical,or bi-directional and relates to the extrapolation mode of the predictedblock. The horizontal and vertical SDCTs are skewed in one dimensiononly, whereas the null SDCT is skewed in both dimensions. Also, thehorizontal and vertical skews are transposes.

The skewed inverse DCT is defined:

$\begin{matrix}{{{{SIDCT}(T)} = {{{T\left( {0,0} \right)}{B_{*}\left( {0,0} \right)}} + {\sum\limits_{\underset{{i + j} > 0}{i,{j = {0\mspace{14mu} \ldots \mspace{14mu} 7}}}}{{T\left( {i,j} \right)}{B\left( {i,j} \right)}}}}},} & (6)\end{matrix}$

where T( ) is an array of frequency coefficients, B( ) is a set of basisfunctions, and B_(*)(0,0) is the DC basis function for a frequencytransform mode indicated by the subscript *, for example, H, V, or O forhorizontal, vertical, or null (bi-directional) transform modes.

The forward SDCT is not orthonormal, and can be defined in terms of thepseudoinverse of the inverse SDCT. This potentially affects allcoefficients of the forward transform. An approximation to thepseudoinverse is obtained using lifting and inverse lifting.

FIG. 19 a illustrates the use of lifting (1960) in an encoder duringcompression of an 8×8 residual block to implement a skewed DCT in oneimplementation. The lifting is a reversible operation. After the encoderapplies a DCT to the 8×8 residual block, resulting in an 8×8 block ofDCT coefficients (1965), the encoder quantizes (1970) the DC DCTcoefficient (1966). For example, the encoder applies the quantizationdescribed in the next section for DC coefficients. The encoder theninverse quantizes (1971) the DC DCT coefficient (1966). This operationensures that the encoder and decoder use the same value for the DC DCTcoefficient (1966) in lifting and inverse lifting operations.

The encoder then lifts (1980) one or more of the DCT coefficients, wherethe lifting is a function of the reconstructed DC DCT coefficient value(1966). The DCT transform lifting occurs by subtracting the DC DCTcoefficient (1966) from certain coefficients of the DCT coefficients.Namely, the encoder adjusts selected AC coefficients of the left column(as shown in FIG. 19 a) or selected AC coefficients of the top row (notshown in FIG. 19 a), as described below.

The lifting (1980) produces a block of skewed DCT coefficients (1985),which the encoder then quantizes (1990), for example, using a techniquedescribed in the next section. In alternative embodiments, the encoderperforms lifting as a function of coefficients other than or in additionto the DC coefficient, adjusts coefficients other than the ACcoefficients shown in FIG. 19 a, and/or uses a frequency transform otherthan DCT.

FIG. 19 b illustrates the use of inverse lifting in a decoder duringreconstruction of an 8×8 residual block to implement a skewed inverseDCT. A decoder receives an entropy coded segment (1910) and entropydecodes and scans (1920) the segment into a two-dimensional block (1925)of quantized DCT coefficients. The decoder inverse quantizes (1930) theDCT coefficients. The decoder then inverse lifts (1940) one or more ofthe coefficients in the block (1935) of inverse quantized DCTcoefficients. The inverse lifting process is described in detail below.Finally, the decoder applies (1950) an inverse DCT to the block (1945)of inverse lifted coefficients. FIGS. 20 a-20 c show pseudocode (2000)for 8-point IDCT operations for rows and columns in one implementation.For an 8×8 block, an 8-point one dimensional IDCT operationRowIDCT_(—)8Point( ) is performed on each of the 8 rows of the block,then an 8-point one dimensional IDCT operation ColumnIDCT_(—)8Point( )is performed on each of the 8 resultant columns.

Inverse lifting modifies the inverse quantized transform coefficients toweight the DC response at pixels distant from the predicting edge(s). Inone implementation, the decoder can use any one of four lifting modeswhich correspond to four skewed IDCT modes. The first lifting modeleaves the DCT coefficients untouched. The second and third liftingmodes operate on the first row and column of the coefficients,respectively, resulting in horizontal and vertical weighting. The fourthlifting mode operates across the entire block. The second, third andfourth lifting modes are termed horizontal, vertical and bi-directionallifting modes, respectively. The four lifting modes correspond to, inorder, regular IDCT, and horizontal, vertical and bi-directionalre-oriented IDCTs.

The horizontal and vertical lifting modes are transposes of each other.Let the input inverse quantized transform coefficient matrix for thecurrent block be denoted by pBlock[i][j], where i and j vary from 0through 7. The horizontal lifting mode modifies four coefficients of theblock according to:

$\begin{matrix}{{{{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 1\rbrack} = {{{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 1\rbrack} - \left\lfloor \frac{{6269 \cdot {{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 0\rbrack}} + 32768}{65536} \right\rfloor}},} & (7) \\{{{{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 3\rbrack} = {{{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 3\rbrack} - \left\lfloor \frac{{708 \cdot {{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 0\rbrack}} + 32768}{65536} \right\rfloor}},} & (8) \\{{{{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 5\rbrack} = {{{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 5\rbrack} - \left\lfloor \frac{{172 \cdot {{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 0\rbrack}} + 32768}{65536} \right\rfloor}},} & (9) \\{\mspace{20mu} {{{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 7\rbrack} = {{{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 7\rbrack} - {\left\lfloor \frac{{73 \cdot {{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 0\rbrack}} + 32768}{65536} \right\rfloor.}}}} & (10)\end{matrix}$

The bi-directional lifting mode uses the following rule

$\begin{matrix}{{{{pBlock}\lbrack i\rbrack}\lbrack j\rbrack} = {{{{pBlock}\lbrack i\rbrack}\lbrack j\rbrack} - {{{sgn}\left( {{{pBwt}\lbrack i\rbrack}\lbrack j\rbrack} \right)} \cdot {\left\lfloor \frac{{{{{{pBwt}\lbrack i\rbrack}\lbrack j\rbrack}} \cdot {{{pBlock}\lbrack 0\rbrack}\lbrack 0\rbrack}} + 32768}{65536} \right\rfloor.}}}} & (11)\end{matrix}$

where pBwt is the 8×8 array of weights shown in FIG. 21. Alternatively,different lifting formulas and/or weights are used.

The flat condition is a particular situation where the skewed transformpresents a liability rather than an advantage. In such situations, theencoder and decoder use the ordinary DCT/IDCT on the residual for acurrent block. The flat condition is indicated by a coincidence of (i)range less than 3 among luminance pixels in the causal boundary of thecurrent block (which would activate flat extrapolation mode), (ii)quantized DC coefficient being −1, 0 or 1, and (iii) no non-zero ACcoefficients. Without any adjustment for the flat condition for suchblocks, banding artifacts are observed resulting from “hunting” andquantization of skewed values. Lack of detail in the block makes theseartifacts stand out and visually annoying.

Adjustment for the flat condition proceeds by setting all pixels in theblock to a common DC value. This DC value is determined as shown in thecode below, where iDC is the quantized DC coefficient, and thepredicting edge DC value iDcValue is determined during setup. Afteradjusting for iDC, the DC value is stored back in iDcValue.

iDC+=QuantizeDC(iDcValue<<3);

iDcValue=clamp((DequantizeDC(iDC)+4)>>3);

where clamp( ) returns its integer argument clamped between 0 and 255.Quantization and dequantization of DC coefficients (QuantizeDC andDeuantizeDC) are defined in the next section. The flat conditiontriggers the flat prediction mode in which all pixels in the predictedblock are set to iDcValue. Alternatively, the flat condition isimplemented with other formulas.

FIG. 22 shows techniques (2200) for lifting and inverse lifting inembodiments in which the lifting and inverse lifting are functions ofthe DC coefficient. With reference to FIGS. 19 a and 19 b, in oneimplementation, a video encoder uses a skewed DCT and a video decoderuses a skewed inverse DCT. For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 22 does notshow the various ways in which the technique (2200) can be used inconjunction with other techniques.

Following a frequency transform (e.g., DCT) of a residual block, theencoder (2210) quantizes the DC coefficient. The encoder reconstructsthe DC coefficient by inverse quantization for use in latercomputations. The encoder then lifts (2220) one or more of the ACcoefficients by adjusting the one or more AC coefficients as a functionof the quantized DC coefficient. The encoder then quantizes (2230) theAC coefficients. Following steps in the encoder such as scanning andentropy coding of the quantized coefficients are not shown in FIG. 22.

In the decoder, following entropy decoding and scanning (not shown), thedecoder inverse quantizes (2240) the AC coefficients and inversequantizes (2250) the DC coefficient. The decoder then (2260) inverselifts the one or more of the AC coefficients that were lifted by theencoder. The decoder then applies an inverse frequency transform (notshown) such as an inverse DCT to the inverse lifted coefficients.

In FIG. 22, the lifting and inverse lifting are a function of the DCcoefficient. In alternative embodiments, the lifting and inverse liftingare a function of one or more AC coefficients as well.

D. Quantization and Dequantization

The video encoder quantizes the frequency coefficients of the residualblocks. In decoding, the video decoder inverse quantizes the frequencycoefficients of the residual blocks.

In one embodiment, the DC transform coefficient of a block is quantizedby a flat quantizer. The reconstruction rule to generate ŷ given thequantized coefficient x is ŷ=x·QP, where QP is the quantizationparameter. Quantization of AC transform coefficients is performed by anearly-flat quantizer which has equally sized bins, except for the widerbin centered at zero. When the quantized input AC transform coefficientis x, the dequantized reconstruction ŷ is given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{\hat{y} = \left\lfloor \frac{\left( {{x \cdot 2 \cdot {QP}} + {{{sgn}(x)} \cdot {QP}}} \right)R}{256} \right\rfloor},} & (12)\end{matrix}$

where QP is the quantization parameter and R is a reconstruction valuethat is either a constant for all transform coefficients or aposition-dependent value. The former case is the default mode ofoperation, while the latter case is termed non-flat (de)quantization. Inthe default mode, R is 256. In this mode, the division and round-downstep may be eliminated. For non-flat (de)quantization, the value of R isdetermined from the array gaReconstructionLevels[ ] shown in FIG. 23.The element of the array to be used is the index of the transformcoefficient in the zigzag scan, counting the DC coefficient as well.

The variable QP denotes the quantization step size. In practice, QPrefers to two distinct step sizes, which are stepSize and stepSizeC. Thelatter quantity is used only for the chrominance DCT DC coefficient, andis related to stepSize as:

$\begin{matrix}{{stepSizeC} = {\left\lfloor \frac{{9 \cdot {stepSize}} + 3}{8} \right\rfloor.}} & (13)\end{matrix}$

In embodiments that use the flat condition, quantization is defined atthe decoder as well as the encoder. Quantization of DC coefficientsproceeds by first computing an integer inverse QP:

$\begin{matrix}{{iQP} = {\left\lfloor \frac{65536 + \left\lfloor {{QP}/2} \right\rfloor}{QP} \right\rfloor.}} & (14)\end{matrix}$

The quantized value x corresponding to raw integer DC coefficient y is:

$\begin{matrix}{\left\lfloor \frac{{y \cdot {iQP}} + 32768}{65536} \right\rfloor.} & (15)\end{matrix}$

The dequantized value ŷ of quantized DC coefficient x is xQP.

Alternatively, the encoder/decoder use different techniques forquantization/dequantization.

E. Scan Order

Following quantization in the video encoder, the encoder scans atwo-dimensional block of quantized frequency coefficients into aone-dimensional array for entropy encoding. The video decoder scans theone-dimensional array into a two-dimensional block before inversequantization. A scan pattern indicates how elements of thetwo-dimensional block are ordered in the one-dimensional array. Both theencoder and the decoder use one or more scan patterns.

In some embodiments, the encoder and decoder select between multiple,available scan patterns for a residual block. FIG. 24 shows a technique(2400) for selecting a scan pattern for a block of spatial extrapolationerror values. FIG. 24 shows three available scan patterns. For example,these are horizontal, vertical, and null scan patterns. FIGS. 25 a-25 cshow a null (i.e., normal) scan pattern (2501), a horizontal scanpattern (2502), and a vertical scan pattern (2503), respectively, in oneimplementation. Other implementations use different scan patterns and/ormore or fewer scan patterns.

The encoder/decoder selects (2410) a scan pattern for scanning theresidual block. For example, an encoder/decoder selects a scan patternbased upon contextual information for the block such as a meta-directionfor the block. The meta-direction can be computed from the actualextrapolation mode of the block as shown in Table 2. For blocks whichhave only a predicted or default extrapolation mode, the meta-directioncan be computed from that information. The encoder/decoder then applies(2420, 2430, or 2440) the selected scan pattern by reordering elementsof a two-dimensional block into a one-dimensional array, or vice versa.For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 24 does not show the various ways inwhich the technique (2400) can be used in conjunction with othertechniques.

Alternatively, the encoder/decoder selects between more or fewer scanpatterns and/or selects a scan pattern based upon other criteria.

F. Significant Coefficient Estimation

In the video encoder, quantized frequency coefficients that have beenscanned into a one-dimensional array are entropy encoded using anentropy code table to map values to entropy codes. Conversely, in thevideo decoder, entropy-coded information is decoded into quantizedfrequency coefficients using an entropy code table to map entropy codesto values. FIG. 26 shows a technique for selecting and switching entropycode tables in an encoder/decoder when encoding/decoding frequencycoefficients for an error block of a spatially predicted block. In oneembodiment, the encoder/decoder encodes/decodes the first n ACcoefficients using a first AC coefficient code table, andencodes/decodes the remaining AC coefficients using another ACcoefficient code table. The quantized DC transform coefficient is codedusing one of two DC coefficient code tables depending on whether n iszero. Alternatively, the encoder/decoder includes more than one codetable switch (e.g. three or more batches of coefficients), usesdifferent switching conditions (other than n), or applies tableswitching to more or fewer groupings of frequency coefficients (e.g.,multiple different groups within the AC coefficients).

With reference to FIG. 26, the encoder/decoder checks (2610) contextaround the predicted block. The context is available at the encoder andthe decoder, and forms a valid context for encoding and decoding. Thecontext can be used for DC coefficients and/or AC coefficients. Forexample, the encoder/decoder computes a number n that predicts thenumber of significant coefficients in the error block. Theencoder/decoder computes n based upon information in the causalneighbors of the predicted block. In one implementation, n is theminimum number of non-zero AC coefficients in the blocks to the left,top-left, and top of the predicted block. For blocks on the top row, nis the number of non-zero AC coefficients in the block to the left.Similarly, for blocks on the leftmost column, it is the number ofnon-zero AC coefficients in the block at the top. For the top leftblock, n is 16.

The encoder/decoder then selects (2620) an entropy code table. Forexample, the encoder/decoder selects the entropy code table used for thefirst batch of n frequency coefficients (up until the switch).Alternatively, the encoder/decoder use one of multiple available entropycode tables for the first batch of n frequency coefficients. The encodercan select the code table depending on contextual information, accordingto encoder settings, after closed loop testing of results with differenttables, or after an open loop estimation of performance with differenttables. The encoder can select the table for the first batch ofcoefficients on a sequence-by-sequence, frame-by-frame, block-by-block,switch-by-switch, or other basis. The encoder can use the same ordifferent tables for luminance and chrominance information. When thetable selection is not based upon context, the encoder outputs a flag orother information identifying the selected entropy code table. Thedecoder can select the code table based upon contextual information orbased upon a table selection flag received from the encoder.

The encoder/decoder processes (2630) the value for a coefficient, forexample, encoding a coefficient with an entropy code in the encoder, ordecoding an entropy code to a coefficient value in the decoder. If theencoder/decoder determines (2640) that there are no more coefficients orentropy codes to process, the technique ends.

Otherwise, the encoder/decoder determines (2650) whether to switchentropy code tables. For example, the encoder/decoder checks whether ithas encoded/decoded n coefficients yet.

If the encoder/decoder does not switch tables, the encoder/decoder gets(2670) the next value for a coefficient and processes (2630) it. Forexample, if n coefficients have not yet been processed, theencoder/decoder gets (2670) the next value for a coefficient andprocesses (2630) it.

Otherwise, the encoder/decoder switches (2660) tables. For example, theencoder/decoder selects the entropy code table used for the second batchof frequency coefficients (after n coefficients). Alternatively, theencoder/decoder use one of multiple available entropy code tables forthe second batch of frequency coefficients, as previously described. Theencoder/decoder then gets (2670) the next value for a coefficient andprocesses (2630) it.

For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 26 does not show the various ways inwhich the technique (2600) can be used in conjunction with othertechniques.

In one implementation, an encoder and decoder use table switching basedupon context as well as table selection information that is signaled. Ina given I frame, all symbols of a certain type (or category) are encodedusing one Huffman code table chosen out of a candidate set of tables forthe type. The type is inferred from causal information available at thedecoder. The index of the chosen table within the candidate set for thetype is indicated by a fixed length code that precedes the first symbolof the particular type for the frame.

In this implementation, the type of a symbol includes a dependence onQP, which indicates typical low bitrate (e.g., QP>12) or high bitrate(e.g., QP<=12) conditions.

In this implementation, the DC coefficient (absolute value level) iscoded jointly with a binary symbol last that signals whether there areany subsequent coefficients (last=false) or not (last=true). The jointsymbol level-last is translated into a bin index and a fine addresswithin the bin. The size of each bin (i.e., the number of jointlevel-last symbols in the bin, which can vary depending on the index) isknown at the decoder and is 2^(k). The fine address for a bin is k bitslong, uniquely and efficiently specifying the symbol within the bin. Theindex values are Huffman coded. Six types are defined for DCcoefficients, three types each for low bitrate and high bitratescenarios. The three types are shown in Table 6. Huffman code tables foreach type are drawn from a candidate set of tables.

TABLE 6 Types for DC coefficients Type Context LH_INTRAZ Luminanceblock; count n of non-zero AC coefficients in causal blocks is zero.LH_INTRANZ Luminance block; count n of non-zero AC coefficients incausal blocks is non-zero. LH_INTRAC0 Chrominance block.

In this implementation, the first coded symbol (for the DC coefficient)in the transform block indicates whether there are subsequent AC valuesymbols. If there are, the AC value symbols are run-length encoded as acombination of run, level, and last values. The run value corresponds tothe number of zero-values transform coefficients separating the currentcoefficient from the previously coded coefficient. Level is themagnitude of the current (nonzero) coefficient, and last is a booleanvariable denoting whether the current coefficient is the last in thecurrent block.

In this implementation, the run-level-last space is mapped into anindex-fine space, where index is an address that partitions therun-level-last space into several bins (each bin containing 2^(k)symbols) and fine is k bits uniquely identifying symbols within bins.Some bins may contain only a single triple (k=0) whereas other binscontain multiple triples (k>0). For uncommon run-level-last values,index values may be used as escape symbols. The index values are Huffmancoded. Eight types are defined for AC coefficients, four types each forlow bitrate and high bitrate scenarios. The four types are shown inTable 7. Huffman code tables for each type are drawn from a candidateset of tables.

TABLE 7 Types for AC coefficients Type Context LH_INTER0 Luminanceblock; DIFFORIENT value >4. LH_INTRAY Luminance block; DIFFORIENT <=4;current symbol count is less than count n of non-zero AC coefficients incausal blocks. LH_INTRAY0 Luminance block; DIFFORIENT <=4; currentsymbol count is greater than or equal to count n of non-zero ACcoefficients in causal blocks. LH_INTER Chrominance block.

Alternative embodiments use different entropy coding and decodingtechniques.

G. In-loop Deblocking

Quantization and other lossy processing of the residual blocks forpredicted blocks can introduce blocky artifacts into a frame. In someembodiments, an encoder/decoder applies a deblocking filter within aspatial extrapolation loop. The deblocking filter can be the same ordifferent filter than a filter used in post-processing. The deblockingfilter removes boundary discontinuities between a reconstructedpredicted block and neighboring reconstructed blocks, which improves thequality of spatial extrapolation for subsequent predicted blocks. Theencoder/decoder performs deblocking after decoding a block in order forspatial prediction to work as expected. This contrasts with the typicaldeblocking processes, which operate on the whole image after decoding.

FIG. 27 shows a technique (2700) for reducing blockiness in a decodedframe using a deblocking filter in a video encoder or decoder. For thesake of simplicity, FIG. 27 does not show spatial extrapolation itselfor other ways in which the technique (2700) can be used in conjunctionwith other techniques. FIG. 28 shows an example of pixel locations thatare considered in one implementation for filtering the boundary betweena predicted block (2810) and the block (2820) to its left. Blockboundaries are marked by bold lines.

With reference to FIG. 27, a video encoder/decoder gets (2710) blockinformation for a predicted block and reconstructs (2720) the predictedblock. For example, the encoder/decoder gets extrapolation modeinformation and residual information, decompresses it if necessary,performs spatial extrapolation if necessary, and combines the residualand extrapolation to reconstruct the block.

The video encoder/decoder filters (2730) the boundaries of the predictedblock with neighboring reconstructed blocks. For example, after decodingan 8×8 block in either luminance or chrominance planes, the left and topedges of the block are subjected to a deblocking filter process.

In one implementation, the deblocking procedure is similar to MPEG-4deblocking with a key difference. The criterion for deciding theexistence of a discontinuity is dependent on the quantization parameterQP, which allows the deblocking filter to disregard falsediscontinuities that may be caused by the skewed IDCT. A horizontaldeblocking filter operates on a left-right pair of blocks, and avertical deblocking filter operates on a top-bottom pair. Horizontal andvertical deblocking filters are transposes. The horizontal deblockingfilter is explained here with reference to FIG. 28.

As in MPEG-4, two deblocking modes are used—one mode applies a shortfilter to one pixel on either side of the block edge whereas the othermode applies a longer filter to two pixels on either side. For each ofthe eight horizontal edge pixel-pairs labeled as v4-v5 in FIG. 28, anedge strength E is computed:

$\begin{matrix}{{E = {{\varphi \left( {{v\; 0} - {v\; 1}} \right)} + {\varphi \left( {{v\; 1} - {v\; 2}} \right)} + {\varphi \left( {{v\; 2} - {v\; 3}} \right)} + {\varphi \left( {{v\; 3} - {v\; 4}} \right)} + {\varphi \left( {{v\; 4} - {v\; 5}} \right)} + {\varphi \left( {{v\; 5} - {v\; 6}} \right)} + {\varphi \left( {{v\; 6} - {v\; 7}} \right)} + {\varphi \left( {{v\; 7} - {v\; 8}} \right)} + {\varphi \left( {{v\; 8} - {v\; 9}} \right)}}},} & (16) \\{\mspace{20mu} {{\varphi (x)} = \left\{ \begin{matrix}1 & {{{if}\mspace{14mu} {x}} \leq T} \\0 & {{otherwise},}\end{matrix} \right.}} & (17) \\{\mspace{20mu} {T = {\left\lfloor \frac{{QP} + 10}{8} \right\rfloor.}}} & (18)\end{matrix}$

If E is less than 6, the encoder/decoder chooses the short filter, whichis defined as in MPEG-4. If E is greater than or equal to 6, the rangeof the values v0 through v9 is computed. Range is defined as the maximumminus the minimum value of these ten variables. If the range is greaterthan or equal to 2QP, the encoder/decoder uses the short filter.Otherwise, the long filter is applied, and v3 through v6 are modified asfollows

$\begin{matrix}{{{v\; 3^{\prime}} = \left\lfloor \frac{{4v\; 2} + {3\; v\; 3} + {v\; 7} + 4}{8} \right\rfloor},} & (19) \\{{{v\; 4^{\prime}} = \left\lfloor \frac{{3\; v\; 2} + {3\; v\; 4} + {2\; v\; 7} + 4}{8} \right\rfloor},} & (20) \\{{{v\; 5^{\prime}} = \left\lfloor \frac{{3\; v\; 7} + {3\; v\; 5} + {2\; v\; 2} + 4}{8} \right\rfloor},} & (21) \\{{v\; 6^{\prime}} = {\left\lfloor \frac{{4\; v\; 7} + {3\; v\; 6} + {v\; 2} + 4}{8} \right\rfloor.}} & (22)\end{matrix}$

The encoder/decoder performs no vertical deblocking for the top row ofblocks and no horizontal deblocking for the left column. Horizontaldeblocking is followed by vertical deblocking for the block. Otherbinary conditions relating to existence of residuals (which are non-zerotransform coefficients for the current block) and absolute spatialorientation also apply:

deblock(int blockX, int blockY, bool bResidual, int iOrient)   {   if((blockY > 0) && (bResidual || (iOrient != 0 && iOrient != 4)))    horizontalDeblockFilter( );   if ((blockX > 0) && (bResidual ||(iOrient != 0 && iOrient != 8)))     verticalDeblockFilter( );   }where blockX and blockY are horizontal and vertical block indices,bResidual is true when the flat condition is activated or when there isat least one non-zero coefficient in the residual, and iOrient is theabsolute orientation direction.

In other implementations, the filter definitions, number of differentfilters, and/or adaptive filtering conditions are different than above.In alternative embodiments, only those pixels that contribute to spatialextrapolation of subsequent blocks are filtered by the in-loopdeblocking filter.

Following the filtering, the encoder/decoder determines (2740) whetherthere are any more blocks in the frame. If not, the technique ends. Ifso, the encoder/decoder gets (2750) block information for the nextpredicted block and reconstructs (2720) the next predicted block.

In some embodiments, the video encoder enables or disables in-loopdeblocking of predicted blocks based upon encoder settings, contextinformation, or other criteria. The encoder can embed a switch at aframe, sequence, or other level to enable/disable deblocking.

IV. Interframe Encoding and Decoding

Interframe coding exploits temporal redundancy between frames to achievecompression. Temporal redundancy reduction uses previously coded framesas predictors when coding the current frame.

A. Motion Estimation

In one or more embodiments, a video encoder exploits temporalredundancies in typical video sequences in order to code the informationusing a smaller number of bits. The video encoder uses motionestimation/compensation of a macroblock or other set of pixels of acurrent frame with respect to a reference frame. A video decoder usescorresponding motion compensation. Various features of the motionestimation/compensation can be used in combination or independently.These features include, but are not limited to:

1a) Adaptive switching of the resolution of motionestimation/compensation. For example, the resolution switches betweenquarter-pixel and half-pixel resolutions.

1b) Adaptive switching of the resolution of motionestimation/compensation depending on a video source with a closed loopor open loop decision.

1c) Adaptive switching of the resolution of motionestimation/compensation on a frame-by-frame basis or other basis.

2a) Using previously computed results of a first motion resolutionevaluation to speed up a second motion resolution evaluation.

2b) Selectively using integer-pixel motion information from a firstmotion resolution evaluation to speed up a second motion resolutionevaluation.

2c) Using previously computed sub-pixel values from a first motionresolution evaluation to speed up a second motion resolution evaluation.

3) Using a search range with different directional resolution for motionestimation. For example, the horizontal resolution of the search rangeis quarter pixel and the vertical resolution is half pixel. This speedsup motion estimation by skipping certain quarter-pixel locations.

4) Using a motion information representation with different bitallocation for horizontal and vertical motion. For example, a videoencoder uses an additional bit for motion information in the horizontaldirection, compared to the vertical direction.

5a) Using a resolution bit with a motion information representation foradditional resolution of motion estimation/compensation. For example, avideo encoder adds a bit to half-pixel motion information todifferentiate between a half-pixel increment and a quarter-pixelincrement. A video decoder receives the resolution bit.

5b) Selectively using a resolution bit with a motion informationrepresentation for additional resolution of motionestimation/compensation. For example, a video encoder adds a bit tohalf-pixel motion information to differentiate between a half-pixelincrement and a quarter-pixel increment only for half-pixel motioninformation, not integer-pixel motion information. A video decoderselectively receives the resolution bit.

For motion estimation, the video encoder establishes a search rangewithin the reference frame. The video encoder can center the searchrange around a predicted location that is set based upon the motioninformation for neighboring sets of pixels. In some embodiments, theencoder uses a reduced coverage range for the higher resolution motionestimation (e.g., quarter-pixel motion estimation) to balance betweenthe bits used to signal the higher resolution motion information anddistortion reduction due to the higher resolution motion estimation.Most motions observed in TV and movie content tends to be dominated byfiner horizontal motion than vertical motion. This is probably due tothe fact that most camera movements tend to be more horizontal, sincerapid vertical motion seems to make viewers dizzy. Taking advantage ofthis characteristic, the encoder uses higher resolution motionestimation/compensation that covers more horizontal locations thanvertical locations. This strikes a balance between rate and distortion,and lowers the computational complexity of the motion information searchprocess as well. In alternative embodiments, the search range has thesame resolution horizontally and vertically.

Within the search range, the encoder finds a motion vector thatparameterizes the motion of a macroblock or other set of pixels in thepredicted frame. In some embodiments, with an efficient and lowcomplexity method, the encoder computes and switches between highersub-pixel accuracy and lower sub-pixel accuracy. In alternativeembodiments, the encoder does not switch between resolutions for motionestimation/compensation. Instead of motion vectors (translations), theencoder can compute other types motion information to parameterizemotion of a set of pixels between frames.

In one implementation, the encoder switches between quarter-pixelaccuracy using a combination of four taps/two taps filter, andhalf-pixel accuracy using a two-tap filter. The encoder switchesresolution of motion estimation/compensation on a per frame basis, persequence basis, or other basis. The rationale behind this is thatquarter-pixel motion compensation works well for very clean videosources (i.e., no noise), while half-pixel motion compensation handlesnoisy video sources (e.g., video from a cable feed) much better. This isdue to the fact that the two-tap filter of the half-pixel motioncompensation acts as a lowpass filter and tends to attenuate the noise.In contrast, the four-tap filter of the quarter-pixel motioncompensation has some highpass effects so it can preserve the edges,but, unfortunately, it also tends to accentuate the noise. Otherimplementations use different filters.

After the encoder finds a motion vector or other motion information, theencoder outputs the information. For example, the encoder outputsentropy-coded data for the motion vector, motion vector differentials,or other motion information. In some embodiments, the encoder uses amotion vector with different bit allocation for horizontal and verticalmotion. An extra bit adds quarter-pixel resolution horizontally to ahalf-pixel motion vector. The encoder saves bits by coding verticalmotion vector at half-pixel accuracy. The encoder can add the bit onlyfor half-pixel motion vectors, not for integer-pixel motion vectors,which further reduces the overall bitrate. In alternative embodiments,the encoder uses the same bit allocation for horizontal and verticalmotions.

1. Resolution Switching

In some embodiments, a video encoder switches resolution of motionestimation/compensation. FIG. 29 shows a technique for selecting amotion estimation resolution for a predicted video frame. The encoderselects between half-pixel resolution and quarter-pixel resolution formotion vectors on a per frame basis. For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 29does not show the various ways in which the technique (2900) can be usedin conjunction with other techniques. In alternative embodiments, theencoder switches between resolutions other than quarter and half pixel,and/or switches at a frequency other than per frame.

The encoder gets (2910) a macroblock for a predicted frame and computes(2920) a half-pixel motion vector for the macroblock. The encoder alsocomputes (2930) a quarter-pixel motion vector for the macroblock. Theencoder evaluates (2940) the motion vectors. For example, for each ofthe motion vectors, the encoder computes an error measure such as sum ofabsolute differences [“SAD”], mean square error [“MSE”], a perceptualdistortion measure, or another measure for the prediction residual.

In one implementation, the encoder computes and evaluates motion vectorsas shown in FIG. 30 a. For a macroblock, the encoder computes (3010) ahalf-pixel motion vector MV_(h) in integer-pixel accuracy. For example,the encoder finds a motion vector by searching at integer incrementswithin the search range. The encoder then computes (3020) MV_(h) tohalf-pixel accuracy in a region around the first computed MV_(h). In aseparate path, the encoder computes (3050) a quarter-pixel motion vectorMV_(q) in integer-pixel accuracy and then computes (3070) MV_(q) toquarter-pixel accuracy in a region around the first computed MV_(q). Theencoder then evaluates (3090) the final MV_(h) and MV_(q).Alternatively, the encoder evaluates the motion vectors later.

In another implementation, the encoder eliminates a computation of amotion vector at integer-pixel accuracy in many cases by computingmotion vectors as shown in FIG. 30 b. The encoder computes (3010) MV_(h)to integer-pixel accuracy.

Most of the time the integer-pixel portion of the MV_(q) is the same asthe integer-pixel portion of MV_(h). Thus, instead of computing theMV_(q) to integer-pixel accuracy every time as in FIG. 30 a, the encoderchecks (3030) whether the integer-pixel accurate MV_(h) can be used forMV_(q). Specifically, the encoder checks whether integer-pixel accurateMV_(h) lies within the motion vector search range for the set ofquarter-pixel motion vectors. The motion vector search range for a givenmacroblock is set to be ±16 (R in FIG. 30) of a motion vector predictorfor the quarter-pixel motion vector. The motion vector predictor for amacroblock is the component-wise median of the macroblock's left, top,and top-right neighboring macroblocks' motion vectors, and can bedifferent for MV_(h) and MV_(q). Alternatively, the range, motion vectorpredictor, or conditional bypass is computed differently.

If the integer-pixel MV_(h) lies within the range then the encoder skipsthe computation of the integer-pixel MV_(q), and simply sets (3040)MV_(q) to MV_(h). Otherwise, the encoder computes (3050) MV_(q) tointeger-pixel accuracy. The encoder computes (3020) MV_(h) to half-pixelaccuracy, computes (3070) MV_(q) to quarter-pixel accuracy, andevaluates (3070) the motion vectors. Alternatively, the encoder computesthe quarter-pixel motion vector at integer-pixel accuracy first, andselectively bypasses the computation of the half-pixel motion vector atinteger-pixel accuracy.

Returning to FIG. 29, the encoder determines (2950) whether there areany more macroblocks in the frame. If so, the encoder gets (2960) thenext macroblock and computes motion vectors for it.

Otherwise, the encoder selects (2970) the motion vector resolution forthe predicted frame. In one implementation, the encoder uses arate-distortion criterion to select the set of MV_(h)'s or the set ofMV_(q)'s. The encoder compares the cost of choosing half-pixelresolution versus quarter-pixel resolution and picks the minimum of thetwo. The cost functions are defined as follows:

J _(q)=SAD_(q) +QP*iMvBitOverhead

J _(h)=SAD_(h)

where J_(h) and J_(q) are the cost of choosing half-pixel resolution andquarter-pixel resolution, respectively. SAD_(h) and SAD_(q) are the sumsof the residual error from prediction using the half-pixel andquarter-pixel motion vectors, respectively. QP is a quantizationparameter. The effect of QP is to bias the selection in favor ofhalf-pixel resolution in cases where QP is high and distortion inresiduals would offset gains in quality from the higher resolutionmotion estimation. iMvBitOverhead is the extra bits for codingquarter-pixel motion vectors compared to the half-pixel motion vectors.In an implementation in which half-pixel motion vectors (but notinteger-pixel motion vectors) have an extra resolution bit,iMvBitOverhead is the number of non-integer-pixel motion vectors in theset of MV_(q)s. Alternatively, the encoder uses other costs functions,for example, cost functions that directly compare the bits spent fordifferent resolutions of motion vectors.

2. Different Horizontal and Vertical Resolutions

In some embodiments, a video encoder uses a search range with differenthorizontal and vertical resolutions. For example, the horizontalresolution of the search range is quarter pixel and the verticalresolution of the search range is half pixel.

The encoder finds an integer-pixel accurate motion vector in a searchrange, for example, by searching at integer increments within the searchrange. In a region around the integer-pixel accurate motion vector, theencoder computes a sub-pixel accurate motion vector by evaluating motionvectors at sub-pixel locations in the region.

FIG. 31 shows a location I that is pointed to by an integer-pixelaccurate motion vector. The encoder computes a half-pixel motion vectorby searching for the best match among all eight half-pixel locations H₀to H₇ surrounding the integer position I. On the other hand, the encodercomputes the quarter-pixel motion vector by searching for the best matchamong the eight half-pixel locations H₀ to H₇ and eight quarter-pixellocations Q₀ to Q₇. The searched quarter-pixel locations are placedhorizontally between adjacent half-pixel locations. The searchedquarter-pixel locations are not placed vertically between adjacenthalf-pixel locations. Thus, the search density increases on horizontalquarter-pixel locations, but not vertical quarter-pixel locations. Thisfeature improves performance by speeding up the motion estimationprocess compared to a search in each direction by quarter-pixelincrements, which would also require the computation of values foradditional quarter-pixel locations.

In an implementation in which quarter-pixel resolution is indicated byadding an extra bit to half-pixel motion vectors, the quarter-pixellocation to the right of the integer-pixel location is not searched as avalid location for a quarter-pixel motion vector, although a sub-pixelvalue is computed there for matching purposes. In other implementations,that quarter-pixel location is also searched and a different scheme isused to represent quarter-pixel motion vectors. In alternativeembodiments, the encoder uses a different search pattern forquarter-pixel motion vectors.

The encoder generates values for sub-pixel locations by interpolation.In one implementation, for each searched location, the interpolationfilter differs depending on the resolution chosen. For half-pixelresolution, the encoder uses a two-tap bilinear filter to generate thematch, while for quarter-pixel resolution, the encoder uses acombination of four-tap and two-tap filters to generate the match. FIG.32 shows sub-pixel locations H₀, H₁, H₂ with values computed byinterpolation of integer-pixel values a, b, c, . . . , p.

For half-pixel resolution, the interpolation used in the three distincthalf-pixel locations H₀, H₁, H₂ is:

H ₀=(f+g+1−iRndCtrl)>>1.

H ₁=(f+j+1−iRndCtrl)>>1.

H ₂=(f+g+j+k+2−iRndCtrl)>>2.

where iRndCtrl indicates rounding control and varies between 0 and 1from frame to frame.

For quarter-pixel resolution, the interpolation used for the threedistinct half-pixel locations H₀, H₁, H₂ is:

H ₀=(−e+9f+9g−h+8)>>4.

H ₁=(−b+9f+9j−n+8)>>4.

H ₂=(−t ₀+9t ₁+9t ₂ −t ₃+8)>>4.

where t0, t1, t2, t3 are computed as follows:

t ₀=(−a+9b+9c−d+8)>>4.

t ₁=(−e+9f+9g−h+8)>>4.

t ₂=(−i+9j+9k−l+8)>>4.

t ₃=(−m+9n+9o−p+8)>>4.

For the quarter-pixel resolution, the encoder also searches some of thequarter-pixel locations, as indicated by Q₀ to Q₇ in FIG. 31. Thesequarter-pixel locations are situated horizontally in between either twohalf-pixel locations or an integer-pixel location and a half-pixellocation. For these quarter-pixel locations, the encoder uses bilinearinterpolation (i.e., (x+y+1)>>1) using the two horizontally neighboringhalf-pixel/integer-pixel locations without rounding control. Usingbicubic interpolation followed by bilinear interpolation balancescomputational complexity and information preservation, giving goodresults for reasonable computational complexity.

Alternatively, the encoder uses filters with different numbers ormagnitudes of taps. In general, bilinear interpolation smoothes thevalues, attenuating high frequency information, whereas bicubicinterpolation preserves more high frequency information but canaccentuate noise. Using two bilinear steps (one for half-pixellocations, the second for quarter-pixel locations) is simple, but cansmooth the pixels too much for efficient motion estimation.

3. Encoding and Decoding Motion Vector Information

In some embodiments, a video encoder uses different bit allocation forhorizontal and vertical motion vectors. For example, the video encoderuses one or more extra bits to represent motion in one direction withfiner resolution that motion in another direction. This allows theencoder to reduce bitrate for vertical resolution information that isless useful for compression, compared to systems that code motioninformation at quarter-pixel resolution both horizontally andvertically.

In one implementation, a video encoder uses an extra bit forquarter-pixel resolution of horizontal component motion vectors formacroblocks. For vertical component motion vectors, the video encoderuses half-pixel vertical component motion vectors. The video encoder canalso use integer-pixel motion vectors. For example, the encoder outputsone or more entropy codes or another representation for a horizontalcomponent motion vector and a vertical component motion vector. Theencoder also outputs an additional bit that indicates a quarter-pixelhorizontal increment. A value of 0 indicates no quarter-pixel incrementand a value of 1 indicates a quarter-pixel increment, or vice versa. Inthis implementation, the use of the extra bit avoids the use of separateentropy code tables for quarter-pixel MVs/DMVs and half-pixel MVs/DMVs,and also adds little to bitrate.

In another implementation, a video encoder selectively uses the extrabit for quarter-pixel resolution of horizontal component motion vectorsfor macroblocks. The encoder adds the extra bit only if 1) quarter-pixelresolution is used for the frame and 2) at least one of the horizontalor vertical component motion vectors for a macroblock has half-pixelresolution. Thus, the extra bit is not used when quarter-pixelresolution is not used for a frame or when the motion vector for themacroblock is integer-pixel resolution, which reduces overall bitrate.Alternatively, the encoder adds the extra bit based upon other criteria.

FIG. 33 shows a technique for decoding information for motion vectors atselective resolution. For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 33 does not showthe various ways in which the technique (3300) can be used inconjunction with other techniques.

A decoder gets (3310) motion vector information for a macroblock, forexample, receiving one or more entropy codes or other information for amotion vector, component motion vectors, differential motion vectors(“DMVs”), or differential component motion vectors.

The decoder determines (3330) whether it has received all of the motionvector information for the macroblock. For example, the decoderdetermines whether additional resolution is enabled for the macroblock(e.g., at a frame level). Or, the decoder determines from decoding ofthe already received motion vector information whether to expectadditional information. Or, the encoder considers both whether theadditional resolution is enabled and whether to expect it based uponpreviously decoded information.

If the decoder expects additional motion vector resolution information,the decoder gets (3340) the additional information. For example, thedecoder gets one or more additional resolution bits for the motionvector information for the macroblock.

The decoder then reconstructs (3350) the macroblock using the motionvector information and determines (3360) whether there are othermacroblocks in the frame. If not, the technique ends. Otherwise, thedecoder gets (3370) the motion vector information for the nextmacroblock and continues.

B. Coding of Prediction Residuals

Motion estimation is rarely perfect, and the video encoder usesprediction residuals to represent the differences between the originalvideo information and the video information predicted using motionestimation.

In one or more embodiments, a video encoder exploits redundancies inprediction residuals in order to code the information using a smallernumber of bits. The video encoder compresses prediction residuals forblocks or other sets of pixel domain information of a frame usingsub-block transforms. A video decoder uses corresponding decompressionusing sub-block inverse transforms. By using sub-block transforms, theencoder reacts to localization of error patterns in the data, whichimproves the efficiency of compression. Various features of thecompression and decompression using sub-block transforms can be used incombination or independently. These features include, but are notlimited to:

1) Adaptively setting transform sizes for spatial domain data byswitching between multiple available transform sizes. For example, whencoding a prediction residual, a video encoder adaptively switchesbetween multiple available transform sizes for a transform such as DCT.For an 8×8 prediction residual block, the encoder can switch between an8×8 DCT, two 4×8 DCTs, or two 8×4 DCTs. A video decoder adaptivelyswitches transform sizes during decoding.

2a) Setting transform sizes for spatial domain data by making aswitching decision in a closed loop. The video encoder actually teststhe different transform sizes and then selects one.

2b) Setting transform sizes for spatial domain data by making aswitching decision in a open loop. The video encoder estimates thesuitability of the different transform sizes and then selects one.

3a) Switching transform sizes for spatial domain data for a frame at theframe level in a video encoder or decoder.

3b) Switching transform sizes for spatial domain data for a frame at themacroblock level in a video encoder or decoder.

3c) Switching transform sizes for spatial domain data for a frame at theblock level in a video encoder or decoder.

3d) Switching transform sizes for spatial domain data for a frame at themacroblock level or block level within the frame in a video encoder ordecoder.

4) Switching scan patterns for spatial domain data for a frame fordifferent transform sizes in a video encoder or decoder. Switching scanpatterns decreases the entropy of the one-dimensional data, whichimproves the efficiency of subsequent entropy coding.

5) Using a sub-block pattern code to indicate the presence or absence ofinformation for sub-blocks of a block of spatial domain data. Forexample, for an 8×8 prediction residual block, the sub-block patterncode indicates the presence or absence of information for the sub-blocksassociated with the sub-block transform for the block. Using thesub-block pattern codes reduces bitrate for zero-value sub-blockinformation. A video encoder outputs sub-block pattern codes; a videodecoder receives them.

To code prediction residuals, a video encoder uses a frequency transformwith a transform size selected from multiple available transform sizes(alternatively called transform types). In some embodiments, a videoencoder applies a frequency transform to a prediction residual blockfollowing motion compensation. The frequency transform is a DCT or otherfrequency transform. For an 8×8 block, the encoder selects between an8×8 transform, two 4×8 transforms, or two 8×4 transforms. If two 8×4DCTs are used, the 8×8 residual block is divided horizontally into two8×4 sub-blocks, which are transformed into two 8×4 DCT arrays. Likewise,if two 4×8 DCTs are used, the 8×8 residual block is divided verticallyinto two 4×8 sub-blocks, which are transformed into two 4×8 DCT arrays.A video decoder uses an inverse frequency transform with a transformsize selected from multiple available transform sizes. In alternativeembodiments, the encoder and decoder work with sets of values other than8×8 blocks, work with information other than prediction residualsfollowing motion compensation (e.g., for intraframe coding), and/or usea different transform.

To determine which transform size to use, a video encoder evaluates thedifferent transform sizes. In some embodiments, the encoder evaluatesthe different transform sizes in a closed loop. The encoder tests afrequency transform at each of the transform sizes, and evaluates theresults with a rate, distortion, or rate-distortion criterion. Theencoder can test the transform at varying switching levels (e.g., frame,macroblock, block) as well. In alternative embodiments, the encoderevaluates the different transform sizes in an open loop, estimating thesuitability of the different transform sizes without actually applyingthe different transform sizes.

A video encoder and decoder switch between transform sizes. In someembodiments, a video encoder sets switching flags at varying levels(e.g., frame, macroblock, and/or block) from frame to frame. A decodermakes corresponding switches during decoding. In alternativeembodiments, the encoder always switches on a per-frame basis, aper-macroblock basis, a per-block basis, a mixed macroblock or blockbasis, or some other basis.

Following the frequency transform, a video encoder converts atwo-dimensional array of frequency coefficients into a one-dimensionalarray for entropy encoding. Conversely, a decoder converts aone-dimensional array of frequency coefficients into a two-dimensionalarray following entropy decoding. In some embodiments, anencoder/decoder selects a scan pattern from among multiple availablescan patterns based upon a transform size.

Following the frequency transform, a video encoder entropy encodes thefrequency-transformed data. In some embodiments, a video encoderdetermines whether data for a particular sub-block is absent orinsignificant. In a sub-block pattern code, the encoder indicates thepresence or absence of information for sub-blocks of afrequency-transformed block of data. A video decoder receives thesub-block pattern code and determines whether information is present orabsent for particular sub-blocks of a block. In alternative embodiments,the encoder and decoder do not use sub-block pattern codes.

1. Sub-block Transforms

A video encoder and decoder use sub-block transforms to efficiently codeprediction residuals following block-based motion compensation. Theencoder/decoder switches between different transform sizes to apply tothe prediction residual blocks.

FIG. 34 shows a technique for switching transform sizes during encodingof prediction residual blocks in a video encoder. A video encoder gets(3410) a frame, for example, a predicted video frame. For the sake ofsimplicity, FIG. 34 does not show the various ways in which thetechnique (3400) can be used in conjunction with other techniques.

The encoder selects (3420) switching levels for the frame. For example,the encoder evaluates the performance of the sub-block transform sizesat different switching levels within a closed loop by testing therate-distortion performance with different levels of switching (e.g., atthe frame level only, at macroblock level only, at macroblock and blocklevels). The closed loop is described in detail below. Or, the encoderevaluates the performance of different switching levels within an openloop. For example, the encoder computes the variance, energy, or someother measure for the prediction residual blocks as partitioned with thedifferent sub-block sizes. The encoder can compute the measure in thespatial domain or frequency domain, on quantized or original data.

The encoder transform codes (3430) the prediction residual blocks forthe frame using the sub-block transform sizes and switching levelsselected above. In one implementation, the encoder uses either an 8×8DCT, two 4×8 DCTs, or two 8×4 DCTs on an 8×8 prediction residual block,as described in more detail below. Alternatively, the encoder usesanother frequency transform and/or has more or fewer transform sizes(e.g., 4×4 sub-block transform).

The encoder determines (3450) whether there are any more frames. If not,the technique ends. If so, the encoder gets (3460) the next frame andselects (3420) switching levels for it.

In one implementation, a video encoder/decoder switches betweendifferent sizes of DCT/IDCT when processing 8×8 blocks of predictionresiduals. The encoder/decoder use of one of an 8×8 DCT/IDCT, two 4×8DCT/IDCTs, or two 8×4 DCT/IDCTs for a prediction residual block. Forexample, if a prediction residual includes many non-zero values in thetop half and mostly zero values in the bottom half, the encoder anddecoder use the 8×4 transform size to isolate the energy of the block inone sub-block. The 4×8 transform size is similarly indicated when thedistribution of values is different on left and right sides of theblock. When values are evenly distributed throughout a block, theencoder and decoder use the 8×8 transform. The encoder and decoder canuse other transform sizes as well (e.g., 4×4, 2×8, 8×2, 4×2, 2×4, etc.).In general, the potential reduction in rate-distortion for additionaltransform sizes is weighed against the increase in processing overheadfor additional transform sizes, and against potential increases inrelative cost of bitrate for signaling overhead for smaller transformsizes.

FIGS. 35 a-35 c show transform coding and compression of an 8×8prediction error block (3510) using an 8×8 DCT (3520), two 8×4 DCTs(3540), or two 4×8 DCTs (3560) in this implementation. A video encodercomputes (3508) an error block (3510) as the difference between apredicted block (3502) and the current 8×8 block (3504). The videoencoder applies either an 8×8 DCT (3520), two 8×4 DCTs (3540), or two4×8 DCTs (3560) to the error block.

FIGS. 36 a-36 d show example pseudocode (3600) for 4-point and 8-pointIDCT operations for rows and columns. For an 8×8 block, an 8-pointone-dimensional IDCT operation RowIDCT_(—)8Point( ) is performed on eachof the 8 rows of the block, then an 8-point one-dimensional IDCToperation ColumnIDCT_(—)8Point( ) is performed on each of the 8resultant columns. For an 8×4 block, an 8-point one-dimensional IDCToperation RowIDCT_(—)8Point( ) is performed on each of the 4 rows of theblock, then a 4-point one-dimensional IDCT operationColumnIDCT_(—)4Point( ) is performed on each of the 8 resultant columns.For a 4×8 block, a 4-point one-dimensional IDCT operationRowIDCT_(—)4Point( ) is performed on each of the 8 rows of the block,then an 8-point one-dimensional IDCT operation ColumnIDCT_(—)8Point( )is performed on each of the 4 resultant columns.

For the 8×8 DCT (3520), the error block (3510) becomes an 8×8 block ofDCT coefficients (3522). The encoder quantizes (3526) the data. Theencoder then scans (3530) the block of quantized DCT coefficients (3528)into a one-dimensional array (3532) with 64 elements, such thatcoefficients are generally ordered from lowest frequency to highestfrequency. In the scanning, the encoder uses a scan pattern for the 8×8DCT. The encoder then entropy codes the one-dimensional array (3532)using a combination of run length coding (3580) and variable lengthencoding (3590) with one or more run/level/last tables (3585).

In the implementation of FIGS. 35 a-35 c, with each of the DCT modes,the encoder uses the same run length coding, variable length encoding,and set of one or more run/level/last tables. In other implementations,the encoder uses different sets of run/level/last tables or differententropy encoding techniques for the different DCT modes (e.g., one setof tables for the 8×8 mode, another set for the 8×4 mode, a third setfor the 4×8 mode). For example, the encoder selects and signalsdifferent entropy code tables for different transform sizes.

For the 8×4 DCT (3540), the error block (3510) becomes two 8×4 blocks ofDCT coefficients (3542, 3544), one for the top half of the error block(3510) and one for the bottom half. This can localize significant valuesin one or the other half. The encoder quantizes (3546) the data. Theencoder then scans (3550) the blocks of quantized DCT coefficients(3547, 3548) into one-dimensional arrays (3552, 3554) with 32 elementseach, such that coefficients are generally ordered from lowest frequencyto highest frequency in each array. In the scanning, the encoder uses ascan pattern for the 8×4 DCT. The encoder then entropy codes theone-dimensional arrays (3552, 3554) using a combination of run lengthcoding (3580) and variable length encoding (3590) with one or morerun/level/last tables (3585).

For the 4×8 DCT (3560), the error block (3510) becomes two 4×8 blocks ofDCT coefficients (3562, 3564), one for the left half of the error block(3510) and one for the right half. This can localize significant valuesin one or the other half. The encoder quantizes (3566) the data. Theencoder then scans (3570) the blocks of quantized DCT coefficients(3567, 3568) into one-dimensional arrays (3572, 3574) with 32 elementseach, such that coefficients are generally ordered from lowest frequencyto highest frequency in each array. In the scanning, the encoder uses ascan pattern for the 4×8 DCT. The encoder then entropy codes theone-dimensional arrays (3572, 3574) using a combination of run lengthcoding (3580) and variable length encoding (3590) with one or morerun/level/last tables (3585).

FIG. 37 shows decompression and inverse transform coding of an 8×8prediction error block (3710) using two 8×4 IDCTs (3740) in thisimplementation. Decompression and inverse transform coding using the 4×8IDCT use transposes at stages around the inverse frequency transform.Decompression and inverse transform coding using the 8×8 IDCT are shownin FIG. 5.

A video decoder entropy decodes one-dimensional arrays (3752, 3754) ofquantized frequency coefficient values using a combination of run lengthdecoding (3780) and variable length decoding (3790) with one or morerun/level/last tables (3785). The decoder then scans (3750) theone-dimensional arrays (3752, 3754) into blocks of quantized DCTcoefficients (3747, 3748). In the scanning, the encoder uses the scanpattern for the 8×4 DCT.

The decoder inverse quantizes (3746) the data and applies (3740) an 8×4inverse DCT to the reconstructed frequency coefficients in each of theblocks, resulting in a reconstructed 8×4 error block (3712) for the tophalf of the error block (3710) and a reconstructed 8×4 error block(3714) for the bottom half of the error block (3710). The decoder thencombines to top (3712) and bottom (3714) halves to form thereconstructed 8×8 error block (3710).

The decoder combines the reconstructed error block (3710) with apredicted block (3702) from motion compensation using motion informationto form a reconstructed 8×8 block (3704). For example, the reconstructed8×8 block (3704) is a reconstructed version of the current 8×8 block(3504) of FIG. 35.

2. Selection Using Closed Loop

FIGS. 38 a through 38 f show a closed loop technique (3800) for settingtransform size(s) for a frame. In the closed loop technique (3800), theencoder applies each of 8×8, 8×4, and 4×8 transform sizes to the 8×8blocks of a frame, computes distortion measures for each block with eachtransform size, computes signaling overhead for switching at differentlevels, and selects the transform size(s) and switching level(s) for theframe. In alternative embodiments, the encoder tests more or fewertransform sizes, tests different transform sizes, uses a closed looptechnique on something other than a per frame basis, and/or usesdifferent criteria to select transform size(s) and/or switching levels.In still other alternative embodiments, the encoder uses an open looptechnique.

In the implementation illustrated in FIGS. 38 a-38 f, a frame includesmultiple 4:2:0 macroblocks, and each macroblock is made up of six 8×8blocks. Alternatively, another macroblock or block format is used.

With reference to FIG. 38 a, with the closed loop technique (3800), theencoder selects the transform size(s) used in the frame. The transformsize can be specified at the frame, macroblock or block levels. At theframe level, one of four options is specified: 1) all blocks in theframe use 8×8 DCT, 2) all blocks in the frame use 8×4 DCT, 3) all blocksin the frame use 4×8 DCT, or 4) the transform size is signaled at themacroblock level. If the transform type is signaled at the macroblocklevel, then at each macroblock one of four options is specified: 1) allblocks in the macroblock use 8×8 DCT, 2) all blocks in the macroblockuse 8×4 DCT, 3) all blocks in the macroblock use 4×8 DCT, or 4) thetransform size is signaled at the block level.

To start, the encoder initializes (3801) the variables costFrm8×8,costFrm8×4, costFrm4×8, and costFrmvar used to measure performance ofthe different transform sizes at the frame level, as described in Table8.

TABLE 8 Frame-level Variables for Measuring Transform PerformanceVariable Description costFrm8 × 8 Indicates the adjusted bit count forcoding all macroblocks of the frame with an 8 × 8 DCT. costFrm8 × 4Indicates the adjusted bit count for coding all macroblocks of the framewith an 8 × 4 DCT. costFrm4 × 8 Indicates the adjusted bit count forcoding all macroblocks of the frame with an 4 × 8 DCT. costFrmVarIndicates the adjusted bit count for coding all macroblocks of the framewith transform sizes specified at the macroblock level or below.FrameLevelTransformType Indicates the best transform size for the frame.SwitchAtMBLevel Indicates whether the transform type is signaled at themacroblock or frame level. costFrm Indicates the adjusted bit count forthe best transform type(s) including the overhead to signal thetransform type at the frame level.

Table 8 also lists three other variables (FrameLevelTransformType,SwitchAtMBLevel, and costFrm), which used in the closed loop evaluationas described below.

In a top-down, recursive process, the encoder accumulates adjusted bitcounts for these values. The encoder performs (3810) the transforms ofdifferent sizes for a first macroblock in the frame, as shown in FIGS.38 c and 38 d, and repeats when there are more macroblocks (3890) in theframe. For each macroblock, the encoder initializes (3811) the variablescostMB8×8, costMB8×4, costMB4×8, and costMBvar used to measureperformance of the different transform sizes at the macroblock level, asdescribed in Table 9.

TABLE 9 MB-level Variables for Measuring Transform Performance VariableDescription costMB8 × 8 Indicates the adjusted bit count for coding all6 blocks with an 8 × 8 DCT. costMB8 × 4 Indicates the adjusted bit countfor coding all 6 blocks with an 8 × 4 DCT. costMB4 × 8 Indicates theadjusted bit count for coding all 6 blocks with an 4 × 8 DCT. costMBVarIndicates the adjusted bit count for coding all 6 blocks with transformsizes specified for each block at the block level. MBLevelTransformTypeIndicates the best transform size for the macroblock. SwitchAtBlockLevelIndicates whether the transform type is signaled at the block ormacroblock level. costMB Indicates the adjusted bit count for the besttransform type(s) including the overhead to signal the transform type atthe macroblock level.

Table 9 also lists three other variables (MBLevelTransformType,SwitchAtBlockLevel, and costMB), which used in the closed loopevaluation as described below.

For each of the 6 blocks in the macroblock, the encoder accumulatesadjusted bit counts for these values. The encoder performs (3820) thetransforms of different sizes for a first block in the macroblock, asshown in FIGS. 38 e and 38 f, and repeats when there are more blocks(3891) in the macroblock. For each block, the encoder computes arate-distortion measure.

a. Block Level

The encoder performs (3821) the full coding and reconstruction processeson the block using the 8×8 DCT. The encoder applies the 8×8 DCT,quantizes the DCT coefficients, entropy codes the coefficients (e.g.,run level+Huffman), inverse quantizes the coefficients, and applies an8×8 inverse DCT. The quantization introduces distortion that issubsequently measured for the block. The entropy coding results inoutput bits for the block that are subsequently counted.

The encoder also performs (3831, 3841) the full coding andreconstruction processes on the block using two 8×4 DCTs and two 4×8DCTs, respectively.

The encoder measures (3822) the cost associated with the 8×8 DCT as afunction of the distortion of the block and the number of bits requiredto encode the block. The encoder also measures (3832, 3842) the costassociated with the two 8×4 DCTs and two 4×8 DCTs, respectively. Theencoder computes the distortion as the mean squared error [“MSE”]between the 64 original DCT coefficients and the 64 inverse quantizedcoefficients. Alternatively, the encoder uses another distortion measuresuch as sum of absolute differences [“SAD”], a perceptual distortionmeasure, or another error measure.

After the encoder obtains the bit count and distortion for eachtransform size, the encoder needs to make a decision about whichtransform size results in the most efficient compression. The encoderaccounts for both the number of bits and the distortion using costfunction variables cost8×8, cost8×4, and cost4×8, which are described inTable 10.

TABLE 10 Block-level Variables for Measuring Transform PerformanceVariable Description cost8 × 8 Indicates the adjusted bit count forcoding the block with an 8 × 8 DCT. cost8 × 4 Indicates the adjusted bitcount for coding the block with an 8 × 4 DCT. cost4 × 8 Indicates theadjusted bit count for coding the block with an 4 × 8 DCT.BlockLevelTransformType Indicates the best transform type for the block.costBlock Indicates the adjusted bit count for the best transform typeincluding the overhead to signal the transform type at the block level

Table 10 also lists two other variables (BlockLevelTransformType,costBlock), which are used in the closed loop evaluation as describedbelow.

The cost function may readjust the number of bits for a transform sizedepending on the distortion for that transform size. For example,suppose transform coding a block with different transform sizes resultedin the following bit counts and distortions.

TABLE 11 Example Bit Counts and Distortions Transform Size Bit CountDistortion 8 × 8 48 1000 8 × 4 (aggregates 45 1100 of sub-blocks) 4 × 8(aggregates 44 1200 of sub-blocks)

If the encoder considered only the bit counts, the encoder would choosethe 4×8 transform since it was encoded in the fewest bits. However, the4×8 transform also has the highest distortion. To more accuratelydetermine which transform size is the best, the encoder also considersthe distortion. In one implementation, the 8×8 bit count is taken as thebaseline, and the bit counts for the 8×4 and 4×8 transforms arereadjusted as shown in Table 12 and the following equations.

TABLE 12 Variables in Rate-Distortion Adjustments Variable DescriptionD8 × 8 The 8 × 8 DCT distortion (MSE between the 64 original and inversequantized 8 × 8 DCT coefficients). D8 × 4 The 8 × 4 DCT distortion (MSEbetween the 64 original and inverse quantized 8 × 4 DCT coefficients).D4 × 8 The 4 × 8 DCT distortion (MSE between the 64 original and inversequantized 4 × 8 DCT coefficients). FScale 100/(quantizer step size)

For the adjusted 8×4 bit count, the following equations are used.

fVal8×4=(sqrt(D8×4)−sqrt(D8×8))*fScale  (23),

iVal8×4=Int(fVal8×4)  (24),

cost8×4=cost8×4+iVal8×4  (25),

where Int( ) is a function that rounds the input to the nearest integer.For the adjusted 4×8 bit count, the following equations are used.

fVal4×8=(sqrt(D4×8)−sqrt(D8×8))*fScale  (26),

iVal4×8=Int(fVal4×8)  (27),

cost4×8=cost4×8+iVal4×8  (28),

Once the bit counts for each transform size have been readjusted, theone with the lowest bit count is assumed to be the best from arate-distortion perspective. In an alternative embodiment, the encoderuses another cost function that relates cost and distortion as a singlemeasure. In other alternative embodiments, the encoder uses a costfunction that considers only rate or only distortion.

For each block, the encoder computes five values for the variables shownin Table 10. (Some of the values are also used in the macroblock levelas described in the next section.) As initially computed from bit countsand distortion, the values cost8×8, cost8×4 and cost4×8 do not includethe overhead required to signal the transform type at the block level.The encoder adds (3823, 3833, 3843) the bit overhead required to signaltransform size at the block level for the different transform sizes.

cost8×8′=cost8×8+8×8overhead  (29),

cost8×4′=cost8×4+8×4overhead  (30),

cost4×8′=cost4×8+4×8overhead  (31),

where the overhead measures indicate the overhead for switching flagsfor the different transform types at the block level.

The encoder computes the values for costBlock andBlockLevelTransformType as follows. The encoder (3850) compares cost8×8′to cost8×4′ to find the best transform size between the two of them. Theencoder sets (3851, 3852) costBlock and BlockLevelTransformType toeither the 8×8 size or the 8×4 size, respectively. The encoder thencompares (3854) the best transform size so far to cost4×8′ to find thebest transform size between the two of them. The encoder keeps (3855)the current values or sets (3856) costBlock and BlockLevelTransformTypeto the 4×8 size. Alternatively, the encoder uses other conditional logicto find values for costBlock and BlockLevelTransformType.

b. Macroblock Level

Returning to FIGS. 38 c and 38 d, the encoder accumulates (3858) theblock costs for the block with the four running totals for themacroblock: costMB8×8, costMB8×4, costMB4×8, and costMBvar. The encoderthen performs (3820) the transforms of different sizes for the otherblocks in the macroblock. Thus, the value of costBlock is accumulatedfor the six blocks that make up the macroblock. Likewise, cost8×8,cost8×4 and cost4×8 are accumulated for the six blocks.

For each macroblock, the encoder computes seven values for the variablesshown in Table 9. (Some of the values are also used in the frame levelas described in the next section.) As initially computed for themacroblock, the values costMBvar, costMB8×8, costMB8×4, and costMB4×8 donot include the overhead required to signal the transform size at themacroblock level. The encoder adds (3858) the number of bits required tosignal each possible choice to the bit counts.

costMB8×8′=costMB8×8+8×8overhead  (32),

costMB8×4′=costMB8×4+8×4overhead  (33),

costMB4×8′=costMB4×8+4×8overhead  (34),

costMBvar′=costMBvar+Varoverhead  (35),

where the overhead measures indicate the overhead for switching flagsfor the different transform types at the macroblock level. ForcostMBvar′, the overhead measure also indicates the overhead forswitching flags at the block level.

The encoder then computes values for costMB, MBLevelTransformType, andSwitchAtBlockLevel as follows. Basically, the encoder decides whether tocode the macroblock with a single transform size for all blocks in themacroblock or to allow each block in the macroblock to signal its owntransform size. The encoder compares (3860) costMB8×8′ to costMB8×4′ tofind the best transform size between the two of them. The encoder sets(3861, 3862) costMB and MBLevelTransformType to either the 8×8 size orthe 8×4 size, respectively. The encoder then compares (3863) the besttransform size so far costMB to costMB4×8′ to find the best transformsize between the two of them. The encoder keeps (3864) the currentvalues or sets (3865) costMB and MBLevelTransformType to the 4×8 size.The encoder then compares (3866) the best transform size so far costMBto costMBVar′ to find the best transform size between the two of them.If costMB is less than costMBVar′, the encoder keeps (3867) the currentvalue for costMB and sets SwitchAtBlockLevel to FALSE, which mean thatthe switching level is macroblock level for the macroblock. Otherwise,the encoder sets (3868) costMB to costMBVar′ and sets SwitchAtBlockLevelto TRUE, which means that the switching level is block level for themacroblock. Alternatively, the encoder uses other conditional logic tofind values for costMB, MBLevelTransformType, and SwitchAtBlockLevel.

c. Frame Level

Returning to FIGS. 38 a and 38 b, the encoder accumulates (3869) themacroblock costs for the macroblock with the four running totals for theframe: costFrm8×8, costFrm8×4, costFrm4×8, and costFrmvar. The encoderthen performs (3810) the transforms of different sizes for the othermacroblocks in the frame. Thus, the value of costMB is accumulated forthe macroblocks that make up the frame. Likewise, costMB8×8, costMB8×4and costMB4×8 are accumulated for the macroblocks that make up theframe.

For each frame, the encoder computes seven values for the variablesshown in Table 8. As initially computed for the frame, costFrm8×8,costFrm8×4, costFrm4×8 and costFrmVar do not include the overheadrequired to signal the transform at the frame level. The encoder adds(3858) the number of bits required to signal each possible choice to thebit counts.

costFrm8×8′=costFrm8×8+8×8overhead  (36),

costFrm8×4′=costFrm8×4+8×4overhead  (37),

costFrm4×8′=costFrm4×8+4×8overhead  (38),

costFrmvar′=costFrmvar+Varoverhead  (39),

where the overhead measures indicate the overhead for switching flagsfor the different transform types at the frame level. For costFrmvar′,the overhead measure also indicates the overhead for switching flags atthe macroblock/block level.

The encoder then computes values for costFrm, FrameLevelTransformType,and SwitchAtMBLevel as follows. Basically, the encoder decides whetherto code the frame with a single transform type for all blocks in theframe or to allow each macroblock to signal its own transform size. Theencoder compares (3880) costFrm8×8′ to costFrm8×4′ to find the besttransform size between the two of them. The encoder sets (3881, 3882)costFrm and FrameLevelTransformType to either the 8×8 size or the 8×4size, respectively. The encoder then compares (3883) the best transformsize so far costFrm to costFrm4×8′ to find the best transform sizebetween the two of them. The encoder keeps (3884) the current values orsets (3885) costFrm and FrameLevelTransformType to the 4×8 size. Theencoder then compares (3886) the best transform size so far costFrm tocostFrmVar′ to find the best transform size between the two of them. IfcostFrm is less than costFrmVar′, the encoder sets (3887)SwitchAtMBLevel to FALSE. Otherwise, the encoder sets (3888)SwitchAtMBLevel to TRUE. Alternatively, the encoder uses otherconditional logic to find values for costFrm, FrameLevelTransformType,and SwitchAtMBLevel.

3. Signaling Switches

Continuing the example of FIGS. 38 a through 38 f, if the value ofSwitchAtMBLevel is TRUE, the transform type is signaled at themacroblock level. Another signal present at each macroblock indicateswhether a single transform type is used for all blocks in the macroblockor whether each block signals its own transform type. This is determinedby the value of SwitchAtBlockLevel, as previously described. IfSwitchAtBlockLevel is TRUE, of transform type specified byBlockLevelTransformType as determined at the block level is used forthat block. If SwitchAtBlockLevel is FALSE, the transform type specifiedby MBLevelTransformType as determined at the macroblock level is usedfor all the blocks in the macroblock.

If the value of SwitchAtMBLevel is FALSE, the transform type used forall blocks in the frame is signaled at the frame level. The transformtype is indicated by the value of FrameLevelTransformType.

FIG. 39 shows a technique for switching transform sizes in a videodecoder. For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 39 does not show the variousways in which the technique (3900) can be used in conjunction with othertechniques.

A decoder gets (3910) a video frame, for example, a predicted videoframe. The decoder determines (3930) whether frame-level switchinformation is used to indicate a transform size for the frame. If so,the decoder gets (3940) the transform type for the frame and processes(3950) the blocks of the frame. For example, the decoder determineswhether the transform type is 8×8, 8×4, or 4×8, and then applies an 8×8,8×4, or 4×8 inverse DCT to the blocks of the frame. The decoderdetermines (3960) whether there are any more frames. If not, thetechnique ends. If so, the decoder gets (3910) the next frame anddetermines (3930) whether frame-level switch information for the frameis used to indicate a transform size for the frame.

If the frame-level switch information is not used to indicate atransform size for the frame, the decoder gets (3912) a macroblock forthe frame. The decoder determines (3932) whether macroblock-level switchinformation is used to indicate a transform size for the macroblock. Ifso, the decoder gets (3942) the transform type for the macroblock andprocesses (3952) the blocks of the macroblock. The decoder determines(3962) whether there are any more macroblocks in the frame. If not, thedecoder determines (3960) whether there are any more frames. If thereare more macroblocks in the frame, the decoder gets (3912) the nextmacroblock and determines (3932) whether macroblock-level switchinformation for the macroblock is used to indicate a transform size forthe macroblock.

If macroblock-level switch information is not used to indicate atransform size for the macroblock, the decoder gets (3914) a block forthe macroblock. The decoder gets (3944) the transform type for the blockand processes (3954) the block. The decoder determines (3964) whetherthere are any more blocks in the macroblock. If not, the decoderdetermines (3962) whether there are any more macroblocks in the frame.If there are more blocks in the macroblock, the decoder gets (3914) thenext block and gets (3944) its transform type.

In alternative embodiments, a video encoder and decoder use otherswitching logic to switch between transform sizes.

Table 13 shows entropy codes for transform types in one implementation.

TABLE 13 Entropy Codes for Transform Types VLC Transform Type 0 8 × 8DCT 10 8 × 4 DCT 11 4 × 8 DCT

Other implementations use different entropy codes and/or different codetables for different transform sizes.

4. Scan Patterns

Following transform coding and quantization in the video encoder, theencoder scans one or more two-dimensional blocks of quantized frequencycoefficients into one or more one-dimensional arrays for entropyencoding. The video decoder scans one or more one-dimensional arraysinto one or more two-dimensional blocks before inverse quantization. Ascan pattern indicates how elements of a two-dimensional block areordered in a corresponding one-dimensional array.

In some embodiments, the encoder and decoder select between multipleavailable scan patterns for a residual for a motion-compensated block.Both the encoder and the decoder use one or more scan patterns, and usedifferent scan patterns for different transform sizes. FIG. 40 shows atechnique (4000) for selecting one of multiple available scan patternsfor frequency coefficients of a prediction residual for amotion-compensated block. For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 40 does notshow the various ways in which the technique (4000) can be used inconjunction with other techniques.

FIG. 40 shows three available scan patterns, which in this context are,for example, for 8×8, 8×4, and 4×8 DCTs, respectively. FIGS. 41 a-41 cshow 8×8 (4101), 8×4 (4102), and 4×8 (4103) scan patterns, respectively,in one implementation. Other implementations use different scanpatterns.

The encoder/decoder selects (4010) a scan pattern for scanning theresidual block. For example, an encoder/decoder selects a scan patternbased upon transform size for the block. The encoder/decoder thenapplies (4020, 4030, or 4040) the selected scan pattern by reorderingelements of a two-dimensional block into a one-dimensional array, orvice versa.

Alternatively, the encoder/decoder selects between more or fewer scanpatterns and/or selects a scan pattern based upon other criteria.

5. Sub-Block Pattern Codes

In addition to selecting a transform size and applying the frequencytransform to a prediction residual block, the encoder indicates in theoutput bitstream what the transform size is for the block. For example,the encoder indicates whether the DCT used on a block is an 8×8, 8×4, or4×8 DCT.

In some embodiments, if the transform size is a sub-block transformsize, the encoder also outputs a sub-block pattern code that indicatesthe presence or absence of information for the sub-blocks of a block.For example, for the 8×4 DCT, the sub-block transform code indicates thepresence or absence of information for 1) only the bottom 8×4 sub-block;2) only the top 8×4 sub-block; or 3) both the top and the bottomsub-blocks. For the 4×8 DCT, the sub-block transform code indicates thepresence or absence of information for 1) only the left 4×8 sub-block;2) only the right 4×8 sub-block; or 3) both the left and the rightsub-blocks. Table 14 shows entropy codes for sub-block pattern codes inone implementation.

TABLE 14 Entropy Codes for Sub-block Pattern Codes SUBBLK- 8 × 4Sub-block Pattern 4 × 8 Sub-block Pattern PAT VLC Top Bottom Left Right0 X X 10 X X X X 11 X X

The sub-block pattern codes are used at the block level, and only whenthe block uses a sub-block transform size (e.g., not 8×8 DCT for an 8×8block). Other implementations use other entropy codes and/or usesub-block pattern codes differently.

In the encoder, the condition for whether to output information for asub-block is implementation-dependent. For example, with the sub-blockpattern code, the encoder indicates which of the sub-blocks of the blockhave at least one non-zero coefficient. For a sub-block with onlyzero-value coefficients, the encoder sends only the sub-block patterncode, and not other information for the sub-block, which reducesbitrate. Alternatively, the encoder uses another condition (e.g., mostlyzero-value coefficients) to set the values of sub-block pattern codes.

FIG. 42 shows a technique for decoding of sub-blocks using patterninformation. For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 42 does not show thevarious ways in which the technique (4200) can be used in conjunctionwith other techniques.

The decoder determines (4210) whether sub-block pattern information ispresent for a block. For example, in one implementation, if thetransform size is full block (e.g., 8×8), the bitstream does not includea sub-block pattern code for the block.

If sub-block pattern information is present for the block, the decodergets (4220) the sub-block pattern information (e.g., sub-block patterncode) for the block. The decoder then determines (4230) whethersub-block information is present for the sub-blocks of the block. Forexample, the decoder checks the sub-block pattern code. If informationis present for at least one sub-block, the decoder gets (4240) theinformation for the sub-blocks that have information. For example, thedecoder gets information for the top half, bottom half, or both top andbottom halves of a 8×8 block split into 8×4 sub-blocks. If the sub-blockpattern indicates that no information is present for the sub-blocks ofthe block, the decoder goes to the next block, if present.

If sub-block pattern information is not present for the block, theencoder skips the steps 4220 and 4230, and gets (4240) information forthe block.

The decoder then determines (4250) whether there are any more blocks tobe decoded. If not, the technique ends. If so, the decoder gets (4260)the next block and determines (4210) whether sub-block patterninformation is present for it.

In alternative embodiments, the encoder and decoder use other techniquesto signal the presence or absence of sub-block information withsub-block pattern codes.

C. Loop Filtering

Quantization and other lossy processing of prediction residuals cancause blocky artifacts (artifacts at block boundaries) in referenceframes that are used for motion estimation of subsequent predictedframes. Post-processing by a decoder to remove blocky artifacts afterreconstruction of a video sequence improves perceptual quality.Post-processing does not improve motion compensation using thereconstructed frames as reference frames, however, and does not improvecompression efficiency. With or without post-processing, the same amountof bits is used for compression, but the post-processing improvesperceived quality. Moreover, the filters used for deblocking inpost-processing can introduce too much smoothing in reference framesused for motion estimation/compensation.

In one or more embodiments, a video encoder processes a reconstructedframe to reduce blocky artifacts prior to motion estimation using thereference frame. A video decoder processes the reconstructed frame toreduce blocky artifacts prior to motion compensation using the referenceframe. With deblocking, a reference frame becomes a better referencecandidate to encode the following frame. Thus, using the deblockingfilter improves the quality of motion estimation/compensation, resultingin better prediction and lower bitrate for prediction residuals. Thedeblocking filter is especially helpful in low bitrate applications.Various features of the loop filtering can be used in combination orindependently. These features include, but are not limited to:

1a) Using a deblocking filter in a motion estimation/compensation loopin a video encoder.

1b) Using a deblocking filter in a motion compensation loop in a videodecoder.

2a) Adaptively filtering block boundaries of a reference frame in a loopin a video encoder or decoder. The adaptive filtering reduces theundesirable blurring of image properties coincident with blockboundaries.

2b) Adaptively filtering block boundaries of a reference frame in a loopin a video encoder or decoder with reference to a threshold based atleast in part upon a quantization level.

3) Using a short filter to smooth block boundaries in a reference framein a loop in a video encoder or decoder. Compared to other filters, theshort filter preserves more original information for use in motionestimation/compensation.

4a) Adaptively enabling or disabling loop filtering in a video encoderor decoder.

4b) Adaptively enabling or disabling loop filtering in a video encoderfollowing a decision in a closed loop or open loop.

4c) Adaptively enabling or disabling loop filtering in a video encoderor decoder on a per-frame, per-sequence, or other basis.

4d) Enabling or disabling loop filtering in a video decoder according toflags received from a video encoder or contextual information.

In some embodiments, following the reconstruction of a frame in a videoencoder or decoder, the encoder/decoder applies a deblocking filter to8×8 blocks in the reconstructed frame. The deblocking filter removesboundary discontinuities between blocks in the reconstructed frame,which improves the quality of subsequent motion estimation using thereconstructed frame as a reference frame. The encoder/decoder performsdeblocking after reconstructing the frame in a motion compensation loopin order for motion compensation to work as expected. This contrastswith typical deblocking processes, which operate on the whole imageoutside of the motion compensation loop. The deblocking filter itself,however, can be the same or different than a filter used inpost-processing. For example, a decoder can apply an additionalpost-processing deblocking filter to further smooth a reconstructedframe for playback after applying the deblocking filter for the frame asa reference frame for motion compensation. In alternative embodiments,the deblocking filter is applied to sets of pixels other than 8×8blocks.

The encoder/decoder applies the deblocking filter across boundary rowsand/or columns in the reference frame. In some embodiments, theencoder/decoder adaptively filters block boundaries. The adaptivefiltering reduces the unintended blurring of image properties thatcoincide with block boundaries. The adaptive filtering can depend ondifference thresholds across boundaries, and can factor in aquantization level for the reference frame. In alternative embodiments,the encoder/decoder always applies the deblocking filter.

The encoder/decoder applies one or more different filters fordeblocking. In some embodiments, the encoder/decoder applies a shortfilter. Compared to other filters, the short filter affects fewerpixels, preserving more original information for motion estimation.Other embodiments do not use the short filter.

In some embodiments, the encoder/decoder enables or disables loopfiltering on a per-sequence or other basis. In other embodiments, theencoder/decoder always applies the deblocking filter to referenceframes.

1. Deblocking Filter for Reference Frames

The deblocking filter smoothes boundary discontinuities between blocksin reconstructed frames in a video encoder or decoder. FIG. 43 shows amotion estimation/compensation loop in a video encoder that includes adeblocking filter. FIG. 44 shows a motion compensation loop in a videodecoder that includes a deblocking filter.

With reference to FIG. 43, a motion estimation/compensation loop (4300)includes motion estimation (4310) and motion compensation (4320) of aninput frame (4305). The motion estimation (4310) finds motioninformation for the input frame (4305) with respect to a reference frame(4395), which is typically a previously reconstructed intra- orinter-coded frame. In alternative embodiments, the loop filter isapplied to backward-predicted or bi-directionally-predicted frames. Themotion estimation (4310) produces motion information such as a set ofmotion vectors for the frame. The motion compensation (4320) applies themotion information to the reference frame (4395) to produce a predictedframe (4325).

The prediction is rarely perfect, so the encoder computes (4330) theerror/prediction residual (4335) as the difference between the originalinput frame (4305) and the predicted frame (4325). The frequencytransformer (4340) frequency transforms the prediction residual (4335),and the quantizer (4350) quantizes the frequency coefficients for theprediction residual (4335) before passing them to downstream componentsof the encoder.

In the motion estimation/compensation loop, the inverse quantizer (4360)inverse quantizes the frequency coefficients of the prediction residual(4335), and the inverse frequency transformer (4370) changes theprediction residual (4335) back to the spatial domain, producing areconstructed error (4375) for the frame (4305).

The encoder then combines (4380) the reconstructed error (4375) with thepredicted frame (4325) to produce a reconstructed frame. The encoderapplies the deblocking loop filter (4390) to the reconstructed frame andstores the reconstructed frame in a frame buffer (4392) for use as areference frame (4395) for the next input frame. Alternatively, the loopfilter (4390) follows the frame buffer (4392).

In alternative embodiments, the arrangement or constituents of themotion estimation/compensation loop changes, but the encoder stillapplies the deblocking loop filter to reference frames.

With reference to FIG. 44, a motion compensation loop (4400) includesmotion compensation (4420) to produce a reconstructed frame (4485). Thedecoder receives motion information (4415) from the encoder. The motioncompensation (4420) applies the motion information (4415) to a referenceframe (4495) to produce a predicted frame (4425).

In a separate path, the inverse quantizer (4460) inverse quantizes thefrequency coefficients of a prediction residual, and the inversefrequency transformer (4470) changes the prediction residual back to thespatial domain, producing a reconstructed error (4475) for the frame(4485).

The decoder then combines (4480) the reconstructed error (4475) with thepredicted frame (4425) to produce the reconstructed frame (4485), whichis output from the decoder. The decoder also applies a deblocking loopfilter (4490) to the reconstructed frame (4485) and stores thereconstructed frame in a frame buffer (4492) for use as the referenceframe (4495) for the next input frame. Alternatively, the loop filter(4490) follows the frame buffer (4492).

In alternative embodiments, the arrangement or constituents of themotion compensation loop changes, but the decoder still applies thedeblocking loop filter to reference frames.

FIG. 45 shows a technique for applying a deblocking filter to referenceframes in a video encoder or decoder. For the sake of simplicity, FIG.45 does not show the various ways in which the technique (4500) can beused in conjunction with other techniques.

With reference to FIG. 45, a video encoder/decoder gets (4510) areconstructed frame. For example, the reconstructed frame is acombination of a reconstructed prediction residual and a predictedframe.

The video encoder/decoder filters (4520) block boundary horizontal linesin the reconstructed frame, and then filters (4530) block boundaryvertical lines in the reconstructed frame. The filtering smoothes outthe discontinuities between the blocks of the reconstructed frame.Therefore, the filtering process operates on the pixels that borderneighboring blocks.

FIG. 46 shows boundary pixel locations in rows of pixels that arefiltered in one implementation, and FIG. 47 shows boundary pixelslocations in columns of pixels that are filtered in the implementation.FIG. 46 and FIG. 47 show the upper left corner of a component (e.g.,luminance or chrominance) plane. The frame boundaries to the top andleft are shown as solid lines. The crosses represent pixels, and circledcrosses represent pixels that are filtered. As FIG. 46 and FIG. 47 show,the pixels of the top row and left column are not filtered.

The bottom horizontal line and last vertical line are also not filtered.The following lines are filtered:

horizontal lines (7,8),(15,16) . . . ((N−1)*8−1,(N−1)*8)  (40),

vertical lines (7, 8),(15, 16) . . . ((M−1)*8−1,(M−1)*8)  (41),

where N=the number of 8×8 blocks in the plane horizontally(N*8=horizontal frame size), M=the number of 8×8 blocks in the framevertically (M*8=vertical frame size), and line numbering in eachdirection starts with 0.

All the horizontal lines in the frame are filtered first followed by thevertical lines. Thus, the filtering of vertical lines potentiallyconsiders pixels previously filtered in horizontal lines. Alternatively,the order of the horizontal and vertical filtering is reversed. Inalternative embodiments, other pixel locations in a reference frame arefiltered.

Following the filtering, the encoder/decoder determines (4550) whetherthere are any more frames. If not, the technique ends. If so, theencoder/decoder gets (4560) the next frame and filters it.

In some embodiments, the video encoder enables or disables loopfiltering of reference frames based upon encoder settings, contextinformation, or other criteria. The encoder can embed a switch at aframe, sequence, or other level to enable/disable deblocking with a loopfilter.

2. Short Filter

FIG. 48 shows pixel locations for filtering a vertical line in oneimplementation. The pixel location P4 corresponds to a pixel of theeighth vertical line in the frame, and the pixel location P5 correspondsto a pixel of the ninth vertical line in the frame, etc. The labeledpixels P1 through P8 indicate pixel values that are involved in thefiltering operation. Within this group, pixels P4 and P5 are modified bythe filtering. Pixels P4 and P5 in FIG. 48 correspond to pixels atlocations indicated with circled crosses in FIG. 47. FIG. 49 shows pixellocations for filtering a horizontal line in the implementation, and isthe transpose of FIG. 48. The filter definitions for the locations shownin FIGS. 48 and 49 in this implementation are shown in FIG. 50.

In some embodiments, the encoder and decoder use a short filter. Inparticular, in one implementation the encoder and decoder use a modifiedform of the MPEG 4 post-processing deblocking filter. For a completedefinition of the MPEG 4 post-processing deblocking filter, see the MPEG4 standard. With the modified filter, only one pixel on each side of theblock boundary is smoothed if the neighboring pixel values meet asmoothness test, which is defined below for the implementation. Thisreduces the number of values that are modified in a reference frame, andimproves the quality of prediction using estimation. The encoder/decoderadjusts both boundary pixels with one filtering operation. In otherimplementations, the encoder/decoder still modifies only one pixel oneach side of a block boundary, but uses another filter definition, othersmoothness test, or two filtering operations.

Alternatively, the encoder and decoder use filters that consider more orfewer pixel locations, select between different filters, modify more orfewer pixel locations, and/or use different filtering horizontally andvertically.

3. Adaptive Deblocking Filter

FIG. 51 shows a technique for selectively filtering boundary pixels forblocks in a reference frame in a video encoder or decoder. Theencoder/decoder typically applies the technique (5100) for horizontalfiltering then applies it again for vertical filtering. For the sake ofsimplicity, FIG. 51 does not show the various ways in which thetechnique (5100) can be used in conjunction with other techniques.

FIG. 50 shows pseudocode (5000) for a filtering operation performed onpixels in horizontal or vertical lines in one implementation. The valuesP1, P2 . . . P8 in the pseudocode (5000) correspond to the labeledpixels in FIGS. 48 and 49.

With reference to FIGS. 50 and 51, the encoder/decoder gets (5110)boundary lines between blocks for a reference frame. For example, theencoder/decoder gets the eight and ninth, sixteenth and seventeenth,etc. lines horizontally or vertically in a reference frame with 8×8blocks.

The encoder/decoder then computes (5120) one or more boundary heuristicsfor the boundary lines. For example, the encoder computes across-boundary discontinuity heuristic a0, a first side (i.e., top orleft) discontinuity heuristic a1, a second side (i.e., right or bottom)discontinuity heuristic a2, and an intermediate heuristic a3 as shown inFIG. 50 in one implementation. The value of a0 depends on the values ofP3 through P6, the value of a1 on P1 through P4, and the value of a2 onP5 through P8. In other implementations, the encoder/decoder computesmore or fewer boundary heuristics and/or uses different formulas for theboundary heuristics. For example, the encoder/decoder uses simplerheuristics to reduce computational complexity (especially in thedecoder) and/or computes heuristics for some subset of boundary linesinstead of every group of boundary lines.

The encoder/decoder then determines (5130) whether the boundary linesshould be filtered. The encoder typically considers the one or moreboundary heuristics in this determination. In some implementations, theencoder compares one or more of the boundary heuristics to aquantization level. By performing this comparison (e.g., magnitude of a0versus frame quantization step size PQUANT in FIG. 50), theencoder/decoder can avoid some filtering operations for discontinuitiescaused by image properties, not by quantization. For example, if a0 isgreater than PQUANT, there is a greater chance that the discontinuity isdue to a property of the image and should not be smoothed. Theencoder/decoder can also compare the boundary heuristics to each other.For example, FIG. 50 shows a comparison of the magnitude of a0 to theminimum magnitude of a1 and a2. By performing this comparison, theencoder/decoder avoids some filtering operations for cross-boundarydiscontinuities on the order of image property discontinuities alreadyin one block or the other around the boundary. In other implementations,the encoder/decoder uses different conditional logic to decide when toapply a deblocking filter.

If the encoder/decoder determines the boundary lines should be filtered,the encoder/decoder filters (5140) the boundary lines. For example, theencoder/decoder adjusts the pixels P4 and P5 by some value. In FIG. 50,the encoder/decoder computes the average difference clip of the pixelsP4 and P5. The encoder/decoder also computes another measure d thatdepends on the boundary heuristics a0 and a3, with a magnitude nogreater than clip. If clip is non-zero, the pixels P4 and P5 areadjusted by the value d. In other implementations, the encoder/decodermodifies more or fewer pixels of the boundary lines, uses differentfilter definitions, uses a different adjustment factor (e.g.,(P4+P5)/x), and/or uses different filters for different operations. Ifthe encoder/decoder determines the boundary lines should not befiltered, the encoder/decoder skips the filtering (5140) step.

The encoder/decoder determines (5150) whether more boundary lines in theframe should be filtered. If not, the technique ends. If so, theencoder/decoder gets (5160) the next boundary lines to be filtered inthe frame.

Having described and illustrated the principles of our invention withreference to various embodiments, it will be recognized that the variousembodiments can be modified in arrangement and detail without departingfrom such principles. It should be understood that the programs,processes, or methods described herein are not related or limited to anyparticular type of computing environment, unless indicated otherwise.Various types of general purpose or specialized computing environmentsmay be used with or perform operations in accordance with the teachingsdescribed herein. Elements of embodiments shown in software may beimplemented in hardware and vice versa.

In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principles of ourinvention may be applied, we claim as our invention all such embodimentsas may come within the scope and spirit of the following claims andequivalents thereto.

We claim:
 1. A computer-readable medium storing computer-executableinstructions for causing a processor programmed thereby to perform amethod comprising: encoding a first video frame of a video sequenceusing intraframe coding, including: computing a spatial extrapolationfor a current block of pixel values in the first video frame; computinga spatial-extrapolation residual based upon the current block in thefirst video frame and the spatial extrapolation; and applying are-oriented frequency transform to the spatial-extrapolation residual,wherein the re-oriented frequency transform addresses non-stationarityin pixel values of the spatial-extrapolation residual due to the spatialextrapolation; outputting encoded video data for the first video framein a bitstream; encoding a second video frame of the video sequence,including: computing a motion-compensated prediction for a current blockin the second video frame; computing a motion-compensated predictionresidual based upon the current block in the second video frame and themotion-compensated prediction; encoding the motion-compensatedprediction residual using a variable-block-size frequency transform withsupport for switching of transform size at varying levels within thesecond video frame; and outputting encoded video data for the secondvideo frame in the bitstream.
 2. The computer-readable medium of claim 1wherein the bitstream includes switching information that indicates thetransform size used for the motion-compensated prediction residual, andwherein format of the bitstream allows signaling of the switchinginformation within the bitstream at frame level for the second videoframe or at macroblock level.
 3. The computer-readable medium of claim 1wherein the method further comprises, as part of a motion compensationloop, for each of a reconstructed version of the first video frame and areconstructed version of the second video frame as a reference frame:adaptively filtering one or more boundaries between blocks of pixelvalues in the reference frame to reduce boundary discontinuities,including: measuring smoothness of neighboring pixel values across agiven boundary of the one or more boundaries; and if the smoothness ofthe neighboring pixel values meets a smoothness test, filtering one ormore pixel values on each side of the given boundary, wherein anadjustment factor for the filtering depends on one or more discontinuitymeasures that quantify pixel value discontinuity.
 4. Thecomputer-readable medium of claim 1 wherein the method furthercomprises, as part of a spatial extrapolation loop, adaptively filteringat least some values of the spatial extrapolation for the current blockin the first video frame.
 5. A computing system that implements a videoencoder, wherein the system is adapted to perform a method comprising:encoding a video frame of a video sequence using intraframe coding,including: computing a spatial extrapolation for a current block ofpixel values in the video frame; computing a residual based upon thecurrent block in the video frame and the spatial extrapolation; andapplying a re-oriented frequency transform to the residual, wherein there-oriented frequency transform addresses non-stationarity in pixelvalues of the residual due to the spatial extrapolation; and outputtingencoded video data for the video frame in a bitstream.
 6. The computingsystem of claim 5 wherein the method further comprises: encoding anothervideo frame of the video sequence, including: computing amotion-compensated prediction for a current block in the other videoframe; computing a motion-compensated prediction residual based upon thecurrent block in the other video frame and the motion-compensatedprediction; encoding the motion-compensated prediction residual using avariable-block-size frequency transform with support for switching oftransform size at varying levels within the other video frame; andoutputting encoded video data for the other video frame in thebitstream, wherein the bitstream includes switching information thatindicates the transform size used for the motion-compensated predictionresidual, and wherein format of the bitstream allows signaling of theswitching information within the bitstream at frame level for the othervideo frame or at macroblock level.
 7. The computing system of claim 5wherein the method further comprises, as part of a motion compensationloop, for a reconstructed version of the video frame as a referenceframe: adaptively filtering one or more boundaries between blocks ofpixel values in the reference frame to reduce boundary discontinuities,including: measuring smoothness of neighboring pixel values across agiven boundary of the one or more boundaries; and if the smoothness ofthe neighboring pixel values meets a smoothness test, filtering a pixelvalue on each side of the given boundary, wherein an adjustment factorfor the filtering depends on one or more discontinuity measures thatquantify pixel value discontinuity.
 8. The computing system of claim 5wherein the method further comprises, as part of a spatial extrapolationloop, adaptively filtering at least some values of the spatialextrapolation for the current block in the video frame.
 9. The computingsystem of claim 5 wherein the method further comprises: selecting there-oriented frequency transform from among plural available frequencytransforms based at least in part upon spatial extrapolation directionfor the spatial extrapolation, wherein the plural available frequencytransforms include: a first re-oriented frequency transform that isapplied when the spatial extrapolation direction is vertical ornear-vertical, wherein the first re-oriented frequency transformaccounts for upward trend in pixel values at locations further away froma top boundary of the current block; a second re-oriented frequencytransform that is applied when the spatial extrapolation direction ishorizontal or near-horizontal, wherein the second re-oriented frequencytransform accounts for upward trend in pixel values at locations furtheraway from a left boundary of the current block; and a third re-orientedfrequency transform that is applied when the spatial extrapolationdirection is diagonal or near-diagonal, wherein the third re-orientedfrequency transform accounts for upward trend in pixel values atlocations further away from the top boundary of the current block andthe left boundary of the current block.
 10. The computing system ofclaim 5 wherein the re-oriented frequency transform accounts for upwardtrend in pixel values at spatial locations further away from a boundaryof the current block.
 11. The computing system of claim 5 wherein theapplying the re-oriented frequency transform includes applying a firstone-dimensional frequency transform horizontally and applying a secondone-dimensional frequency transform vertically, and wherein at least oneof the first one-dimensional frequency transform and the secondone-dimensional frequency transform uses basis functions that accountfor an upward trend in pixel values at spatial locations away from aprediction edge.
 12. In a computing system that implements a videodecoder, a method comprising: receiving, in a bitstream, encoded videodata for a video frame of a video sequence; and decoding the video frameusing intraframe decoding, including: computing a spatial extrapolationfor a current block of pixel values in the video frame; applying are-oriented inverse frequency transform to transform coefficients of aresidual for the current block in the video frame, wherein there-oriented inverse frequency transform addresses non-stationarity inpixel values of the residual; and reconstructing the current block inthe video frame based upon the residual and the spatial extrapolation.13. The method of claim 12 wherein the method further comprises:receiving, in the bitstream, encoded video data for another video frameof the video sequence; and decoding the other video frame, including:computing a motion-compensated prediction for a current block in theother video frame; reconstructing a motion-compensated predictionresidual for the current block in the other video frame; andreconstructing the current block in the other video frame based upon themotion-compensated prediction and the motion-compensated predictionresidual; wherein the bitstream includes switching information thatindicates the transform size used for the motion-compensated predictionresidual, and wherein format of the bitstream allows signaling of theswitching information within the bitstream at frame level for the othervideo frame or at macroblock level.
 14. The method of claim 12 furthercomprising, as part of a motion compensation loop, for a reconstructedversion of the video frame as a reference frame: adaptively filteringone or more boundaries between blocks of pixel values in the referenceframe to reduce boundary discontinuities, including: measuringsmoothness of neighboring pixel values across a given boundary of theone or more boundaries; and if the smoothness of the neighboring pixelvalues meets a smoothness test, filtering a pixel value on each side ofthe given boundary, wherein an adjustment factor for the filteringdepends on one or more discontinuity measures that quantify pixel valuediscontinuity.
 15. The method of claim 12 further comprising, as part ofa spatial extrapolation loop, adaptively filtering at least some valuesof the spatial extrapolation for the current block in the video frame.16. The method of claim 12 further comprising: selecting the re-orientedinverse frequency transform from among plural available inversefrequency transforms based at least in part upon spatial extrapolationdirection for the spatial extrapolation.
 17. The method of claim 16wherein the plural available inverse frequency transforms include: afirst re-oriented inverse frequency transform that is applied when thespatial extrapolation direction is vertical or near-vertical, whereinthe first re-oriented inverse frequency transform accounts for upwardtrend in pixel values at locations further away from a top boundary ofthe current block; a second re-oriented inverse frequency transform thatis applied when the spatial extrapolation direction is horizontal ornear-horizontal, wherein the second re-oriented inverse frequencytransform accounts for upward trend in pixel values at locations furtheraway from a left boundary of the current block; and a third re-orientedinverse frequency transform that is applied when the spatialextrapolation direction is diagonal or near-diagonal, wherein the thirdre-oriented inverse frequency transform accounts for upward trend inpixel values at locations further away from the top boundary of thecurrent block and the left boundary of the current block.
 18. The methodof claim 17 wherein the plural available inverse frequency transformsfurther include a regular inverse frequency transform that is otherwiseapplied.
 19. The method of claim 12 wherein the re-oriented inversefrequency transform accounts for upward trend in pixel values at spatiallocations further away from a boundary of the current block.
 20. Themethod of claim 12 wherein the applying the re-oriented inversefrequency transform includes applying a first one-dimensional inversefrequency transform horizontally and applying a second one-dimensionalinverse frequency transform vertically, and wherein at least one of thefirst one-dimensional inverse frequency transform and the secondone-dimensional inverse frequency transform uses basis functions thataccounts for an upward trend in pixel values at spatial locations awayfrom a prediction edge.